Homer, in all
probability, knew no rules of rhetoric, and was not tortured with the
consideration of grammatical construction, and yet his verse will endure
through time. If everybody possessed the genius of Homer, rules and cautions in
writing would be unnecessary.
To-day all men speak,
and most men write, but it is observed that those who most closely follow Homer’s
method of writing without rules are most unlike Homer in the results. The
ancient bard was a law unto himself; we need rules for our guidance.
Rules of writing are
the outgrowth of the study of the characteristics and qualities of style which
distinguish the best writers from those of inferior skill and ability.
Grammarians and rhetoricians, according to their several lines of
investigation, set forth the laws and principles governing speech, and
formulate rules whereby we may follow the true, and avoid the false.
Grammar and rhetoric,
as too often presented in the schools, are such uninviting studies that when
school-days are ended,
the books are laid aside, and are rarely consulted afterward. The custom of
formally burning the text-books after the final examinations--a custom that
prevails in some institutions--is but an emphatic method of showing how the
students regard the subjects treated in the books.
If all the rules and
principles had been thoroughly mastered, the huge bonfire of text-books in
grammar and rhetoric might be regarded a fitting celebration of the students’
victory over the difficulties of "English undefiled." But too often
these rules are merely memorized by the student for the purpose of recitation,
and are not engrafted upon his everyday habit of speech. They are, therefore,
soon forgotten, and the principles involved are subject to daily violation.
Hence arises the need
of books like SLIPS OF SPEECH, in which the common faults of speakers and
writers are pointed out, and the correct use of words shown. Brief and informal
in treatment, they will be read and consulted when the more voluminous text-books
will be left untouched.
The copious index
appended to this volume will afford a ready reference to the many subjects
discussed, and will contribute greatly to the convenience and permanent value
of the book.
INTRODUCTION, . . . . .
. . . . . . 3
I. TASTE, . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 7
II. CHOICE OF WORDS, .
. . . . . . . . . 15
III. CONTRACTIONS, . .
. . . . . . . . . 118
IV. POSSESSIVE CASE, .
. . . . . . . . . 124
V. PRONOUNS, . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 129
VI. NUMBER, . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 142
VII. ADVERBS, . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 150
VIII. CONJUNCTIONS, . .
. . . . . . . . . 156
IX. CORRELATIVES, . . .
. . . . . . . . 162
X. THE INFINITIVE, . .
. . . . . . . . 166
XI. PARTICIPLES, . . .
. . . . . . . . . 169
XII. PREPOSITIONS, . .
. . . . . . . . . 174
XIII. THE ARTICLE, . .
. . . . . . . . . . 181
XIV. REDUNDANCY, . . .
. . . . . . . . . 185
XV. TWO NEGATIVES, . .
. . . . . . . . . 194
XVI. ACCORDANCE OF VERB
WITH SUBJECT, . . 198
"We should be as
careful of our words as of our actions."--CICERO.
Taste is a universal
gift. It has been found in some degree in all nations, races, and ages. It is
shown by the savage in his love of personal decoration; by the civilized man in
his love of art.
But while it is thus
universal, it is as different among men as their faces, complexions,
characters, or languages. Even among people of the same nation, it is as
different as the degrees of society. The same individual at different periods
of life, shows this variableness of taste.
These diversities of
taste imply a susceptibility to improvement. Good taste in writing forms no
exception to the rule. While it seems to require some basis in nature, no
degree of inborn aptitude will compensate for the lack of careful training.
To give his natural
taste firmness and fineness a writer needs to read the best literature, not
merely so as to know it, but so as to feel the beauty, the fitness, the charm,
the strength, the delicacy of a well-chosen word.
The study of the proper
arrangement and the most effective expression of our thoughts prompts us to
think more accurately. So close is the connection between the thought and its
expression that looseness of style in speaking and writing may nearly always be
traced to indistinctness and feebleness in the grasp of the subject. No degree
of polish in expression will compensate for inadequacy of knowledge. But with
the fullest information upon any subject, there is still room for the highest
exercise of judgment and good sense in the proper choice and arrangement of the
thoughts, and of the words with which to express them.
The concurrent
testimony of those best qualified to render a decision, has determined what
authors reflect the finest literary taste, and these writers should be
carefully studied by all who aspire to elegance, accuracy, and strength in
literary expression.
Never hesitate to call
a spade a spade. One of the most frequent violations of good taste consists in
the effort to dress a common subject in high-sounding language. The ass in the
fable showed his stupidity when he put on the lion’s skin and expected the
other animals to declare him to be the king of beasts. The distinction of a
subject lies in its own inherent character, and no pompous parade of words will
serve to exalt a commonplace theme.
In the expression of
homely ideas and the discussion of affairs of every-day life, avoid such poetic
forms as o’er for over, ne’er for never, ’mid for amid, e’en for even, ’gan for
began, ’twixt for betwixt, ’neath for beneath, list for listen, oft for often,
morn for morning, eve for evening, e’er for ever, ere for before, ’tis for it
is, ’twas for it was.
In all prose
composition, avoid such poetic forms as swain, wight, mead, brake, dingle,
dell, zephyr.
The unrestrained use of
foreign words, whether from the ancient or from the modern languages, savors of
pedantry and affectation. The ripest scholars, in speaking and writing English,
make least use of foreign words or phrases. Persons who indulge in their use
incur the risk of being charged with a desire to exhibit their linguistic
attainments.
On the other hand,
occasions arise when the use of words from a foreign tongue by one who is
thoroughly familiar with them, will add both grace and exactness to his style.
Rarely use a foreign
term when your meaning can be as well expressed in English. Instead of blase,
use surfeited, or wearied; for cortege use procession for couleur de rose,
rose-color; for dejeuner, breakfast; for employe, employee; for en route, on
the way; for entre nous, between ourselves; for fait accompli, an accomplished
fact; for in toto, wholly, entirely; for penchant, inclination; for raison d’etre,
reason for existence; for recherche, choice, refined; for role, part; for
soiree dansante, an evening dancing party; for sub rosa, secretly, etc.
The following incident
from the Detroit Free Press is in point:
The gentleman from the
West pulled his chair up to the hotel table, tucked his napkin under his chin,
picked up the bill-of-fare and began to study it intently. Everything was in
restaurant French, and he didn’t like it.
"Here,
waiter," he said, sternly, "there’s nothing on this I want."
"Ain’t there
nothin’ else you would like for dinner, sir?" inquired the waiter,
politely.
"Have you got any
sine qua non?"
The waiter gasped.
"No, sir," he
replied.
"Got any bon
mots?"
"N--no, sir."
"Got any semper
idem?"
"No, sir, we hain’t."
"Got any jeu d’esprits?"
"No, sir; not a
one."
"Got any tempus
fugit?"
"I reckon not,
sir."
"Got any soiree
dansante?"
"No, sir."
The waiter was edging
off.
"Got any sine
die?"
"We hain’t,
sir."
"Got any e
pluribus unum?"
The waiter’s face
showed some sign of intelligence.
"Seems like I
heard ob dat, sir," and he rushed out to the kitchen, only to return
empty-handed.
"We ain’t got
none, sir," he said, in a tone of disappointment.
"Got any mal de
mer?"
"N--no, sir."
The waiter was going to
pieces fast.
The gentleman from the
West, was as serene as a May morning.
"Got any vice
versa?" he inquired again.
The waiter could only
shake his head.
"No? Well, maybe
you’ve got some bacon and cabbage, and a corn dodger?"
"’Deed we have,
sir," exclaimed the waiter, in a tone of the utmost relief, and he fairly
flew out to the kitchen.
Words and phrases which
may once have been striking and effective, or witty and felicitous, but which
have become worn out by oft-repeated use, should be avoided. The following
hackneyed phrases will serve to illustrate: "The staff of life,"
"gave up the ship," "counterfeit presentment," "the
hymeneal altar," "bold as a lion," "throw cold water upon,"
"the rose upon the cheek," "lords of creation," "the
weaker sex," "the better half," "the rising
generation," "tripping the light fantastic toe," "the cup
that cheers but does not inebriate," "in the arms of Morpheus,"
"the debt of nature," "the bourne whence no traveler
returns," "to shuffle off this mortal coil," "the devouring
element," "a brow of alabaster."
Avoid pet words,
whether individual, provincial, or national in their use. Few persons are
entirely free from the overuse of certain words. Young people largely employ
such words as delightful, delicious, exquisite, and other expressive
adjectives, which constitute a kind of society slang.
Words and phrases are
often taken up by writers and speakers, repeated, and again taken up by others,
and thus their use enlarges in ever-widening circles until the expressions
become threadbare. Drop them before they have reached that state. Function, environment,
trend, the masses, to be in touch with, to voice the sentiments of--these are
enough to illustrate the kind of words referred to.
No one who has any
regard for purity of diction and the proprieties of cultivated society will be
guilty of the use of such expressions as yaller for yellow, feller for fellow,
kittle for kettle, kiver for cover, ingons for onions, cowcumbers for
cucumbers, sparrowgrass for asparagus, yarbs for herbs, taters for potatoes,
tomats for tomatoes, bile for boil, hain’t for ain’t or isn’t, het for heated,
kned for kneaded, sot for sat or set, teeny for tiny, fooling you for deceiving
you, them for those, shut up for be quiet, or be still, or cease speaking, went
back on me for deceived me or took advantage of me, a power of people for a
great many people, a power of money for great wealth, a heap of houses for many
houses, lots of books for many books, lots of corn for much corn or large
quantities of corn, gents for gentlemen, and many others of a similar
character.
Our American writers
evince much variety in their graces of diction, but in the accurate choice of
words James Russell Lowell and William Cullen Bryant stand out conspicuous
above the rest. So careful and persistent was the latter, that during the time
that he was editor of The Evening Post, of New York City, he required the
various writers upon that paper to avoid the use of a long list of words and
expressions which he had prepared for them, and which were commonly employed by
other papers. This list was not only used, but enlarged by his successors.
Strive to cultivate the
habit of observing words; trace their delicate shades of meaning as employed by
the most polished writers; note their suggestiveness; mark the accuracy with
which they are chosen. In this way your mind will be kept on the alert to
discover the beauties as well as the blemishes of all the thought pictures that
are presented, and your vocabulary will be greatly enlarged and enriched.
Above, and over, use
more than.
Artiste, use artist.
Aspirant.
Authoress
Beat, use defeat.
Bagging, use capturing.
Balance, use remainder.
Banquet, use dinner or
supper.
Bogus.
Casket, use coffin.
Claimed, use asserted.
Collided.
Commence, use begin.
Compete.
Cortege, use
procession.
Cotemporary, use
contemporary.
Couple, use two.
Darkey, use negro.
Day before yesterday,
use the day before yesterday.
Debut.
Decease, as a verb.
Democracy, applied to a
political party.
Develop, use expose.
Devouring element, use
fire.
Donate.
Employe.
Enacted, use acted.
Endorse, use approve.
En route.
Esq.
Graduate, use is
graduated.
Gents, use gentlemen.
Hon.
House, use House of
Representatives.
Humbug.
Inaugurate, use begin.
In our midst.
Item, use particle,
extract, or paragraph.
Is being done, and all
similar passive forms.
Jeopardize.
Jubilant, use
rejoicing.
Juvenile, use boy.
Lady, use wife.
Last, use latest.
Lengthy, use long.
Leniency, use lenity.
Loafer.
Loan, or loaned, use
lend or lent.
Located.
Majority, use most.
Mrs. President.
Mrs. Governor.
Mrs. General.
Mutual, use common.
Official, use officer.
Ovation.
On yesterday.
Over his signature.
Pants, use pantaloons.
Parties, use persons.
Partially, use partly.
Past two weeks, use
last two weeks.
Poetess.
Portion, use part.
Posted, use informed.
Progress, use advance.
Quite, when prefixed to
good, large, etc.
Raid, use attack.
Realized, use obtained.
Reliable, use
trustworthy.
Rendition, use
performance.
Repudiate, use reject
or disown.
Retire, as an active
verb.v Rev., use the Rev.
Role, use part.
Roughs.
Rowdies.
Secesh.
Sensation, use
noteworthy event.
Standpoint, use point
of view.
Start, in the sense of
setting out.
State, use say.
Taboo.
Talent, use talents or
ability.
Talented.
Tapis.
The deceased.
War, use dispute or
disagreement.
Avoid bombastic
language. Work for plain expressions rather than for the unusual. Use the
simplest words that the subject will bear.
The following clipping,
giving an account of the commencement exercises of a noted female college,
strikingly illustrates what to avoid:
"Like some
beacon-light upon a rock-bound coast against which the surges of the ocean
unceasingly roll, and casting its beams far across the waters warning the
mariner from the danger near, the college, like a Gibraltar, stands upon the
high plains of learning, shedding its rays of knowledge, from the murmurings of
the Atlantic to the whirlwinds of the Pacific, guiding womankind from the dark
valley of ignorance, and wooing her with wisdom’s lore, leads creation’s
fairest, purest, best into flowery dells where she can pluck the richest food
of knowledge, and crowns her brow with a coronet of gems whose brilliancy can
never grow dim: for they glisten with the purest thought, that seems as a spark
struck from the mind of Deity. There is no need for the daughters of this
community to seek colleges of distant climes whereat to be educated, for right
here in their own city, God’s paradise on earth, is situated a noble college,
the bright diadem of that paradise, that has done more for the higher education
of woman than any institution in our land."
An author’s diction is
pure when he uses such words only as belong to the idiom of the language. The
only standard of purity is the practice of the best writers and speakers. A
violation of purity is called a barbarism.
Unlike the Latin, Greek,
or Hebrew, the English is a living language, and, like all living organisms,
manifests its life by taking in new material and casting off old waste
continually. Science, art, and philosophy give rise to new ideas which, in
turn, demand new words for their expression. Of these, some gain a permanent
foothold, while others float awhile upon the currents of conversation and
newspaper literature and then disappear.
Good usage is the only
real authority in the choice of reputable words; and to determine, in every
case, what good usage dictates, is not an easy matter. Authors, like words,
must be tested by time before their forms of expression may become a law for
others. Pope, in his Essay on Criticism, laid down a rule which, for point and
brevity, has never been excelled:
"In words, as
fashions, the same rule will hold;
Alike fantastic, if too
new or old;
Be not the first by
whom the new are tried,
Nor yet the last to lay
the old aside."
Campbell, in his
Philosophy of Rhetoric, says that a word to be legitimate must have these three
signs of authority:
It must be reputable,
or that of educated people, as opposed to that of the ignorant or vulgar.
It must be national, as
opposed to what is either local or technical.
It must be present, as
opposed to what is obsolete.
Any word that does not
have these three qualities may, in general, be styled a barbarism.
Many foreign words, in
process of time, become so thoroughly domesticated that their translation, or
the use of an awkward equivalent, would be a greater mark of pedantry than the
use of the foreign words. The proper use of such terms as fiat, palladium, cabal,
quorum, omnibus, antique, artiste, coquette, ennui, physique, regime, tableau,
amateur, cannot be censured on the ground of their foreign character.
Some writers affect an
antiquated style by the introduction of such words as peradventure, perchance,
anon, behest, quoth, erewhile. The use of such words gives a strange sound to
the sentence, and generally indicates that the writer is not thoroughly in
earnest. The expression is lowered in tone and is made to sound fantastic.
A word should not be
condemned because it is new. If it is really needed it will be welcomed, and
soon find a permanent place. Shakespeare, Addison, and Johnson introduced many
new words, to which their names afterward gave a sanction. Carlyle, Coleridge,
Tennyson, and Browning have introduced or given currency to new words, and made
strange ones familiar.
New words are
objectionable when they are employed without proper authority. The chief
sources of supply of the objectionable kind are the current slang of the street
and the sensational newspaper. They are often the result of a desire to say
things in such a manner as to reflect smartness upon the speaker, or to present
things in a humorous or picturesque way. That they are frequently very
effective cannot be gainsaid. Sometimes they are coined in the heat of
political or social discussion, and, for a time, express what everybody is
talking about; but it is impossible to tell whether they will live beyond the
occasion that produced them. So long as their usage is doubtful it is safer not
to employ them.
Slang is somewhat like
chicken-pox or measles, very catching, and just as inevitable in its run; and
very few of us escape it. It is severest, too, where the sanitary conditions
are most favorable to its development. Where there is least thought and culture
to counteract its influence slang words crowd out those of a more serious
character, until, in time, the young and inexperienced speaker or writer is
unable to distinguish between the counterfeit and the genuine.
While most persons
condemn slang, there are very few who are entirely free from its use. It varies
greatly in its degrees of coarseness or refinement, and adapts itself to all
classes and conditions. Many know no other language, and we are unwillingly
compelled to admit that while their speech is often ungrammatical and
unrhetorical, it is generally clear, concise, and forcible.
Strive to acquire a
vocabulary so large and to cultivate a taste so fine that when a slang
expression rises to your mind you can use it if you think it best fits the
occasion, or substitute something better in its place. Purity of diction is a
garden of slow growth even under the most favorable conditions, and the
unrestrained indulgence in slang is like scattering seeds of the vilest plants
among the choicest flowers.
"This is an
elegant day," "that is an elegant view," "Mary is awfully
nice," "Jennie is dreadfully sweet," "Gertrude is
delicious," and "Tom is perfectly splendid." The use of such
extravagant phrases tends to weaken the significance of the words when
legitimately employed.
Commercial terms are
employed in the common language of everyday life to such an extent as to
constitute a form of commercial slang. The following will serve for
illustration; "The balance of the journey" for remainder, "he
was well posted." for well informed, "I calculate he will come
to-morrow" for believe or think, "I reckon he is your friend"
for I suppose.
To materialize, to
burglarize, to enthuse, to suicide, to wire, to jump upon, to sit upon, to take
in, are a few of the many examples of slang that should be avoided.
A word that is used
only in a limited part of the country is called a provincialism. It must be
known and recognized for what it is worth, but not obtruded where it does not
belong.
Whatever may be said of
the faults of speech of the American people, it is doubtful if any other
nation, whether it covers a large territory or is limited in area, speaks the
language native to the country with the uniformity that we do. Yet, there are
peculiarities that mark the expression of most of our people, even among the
best informed. The words calculate, reckon, and guess are not the only words
that betray the locality of the speaker. Any person who has been five hundred
miles from home cannot fail to have observed words that were used differently
from the way in which he had been accustomed to use them, and he probably heard
terms of expression that seemed strange to him. In like manner, his own
expressions sounded strange to those who heard him. That which distinguished
his speech from theirs and theirs from his would, in large part, be covered by
the word "provincialism."
Not only do we have
local and sectional peculiarities of speech, but we may be said to have
national mannerisms. Mr. Alexander Melville Bell, the eminent elocutionist,
relates that some years ago when residing in Edinburgh, a stranger called to
make some inquiries in regard to professional matters.
"I have called on
you, sir, for the purpose of," etc.
"When did you
cross the Atlantic?" I asked.
The stranger looked up
with surprise amounting almost to consternation.
"How do you know
that I have crossed the Atlantic?"
"Your manner of
using the little word ’sir’ is not heard in England or Scotland."
This gentleman, Mr.
Bell says, was one of the most eminent teachers of elocution in America, and
his speech was perfectly free from ordinary local coloring, in all but the one
little element which had escaped observation.
Much diversity of usage
exists and some difference of opinion prevails concerning the proper expression
to use when you are addressed, and fail to understand just what has been said.
Such interrogative rejoinders as "What?" "How?"
"Which?" "Hey?" are plainly objectionable. "Sir?"
and "Madam!" once common, are no longer tolerated in society. The
English expression "Beg pardon" has found favor, but it is not wholly
acceptable. "Excuse me" is suggested by a writer on the subject. It
has no more syllables than "Beg pardon," and is nearly equivalent in
signification, but it is also subject to the objection that it is often used to
imply a difference of opinion, as when a person makes a statement to which you
take exception, you begin your reply with the expression, "Excuse
me."
Whatever is adopted
will doubtless be a convenient contraction, like "Beg pardon," which
is a short way of saying, "I beg your pardon for failing to understand
what you said;" or "Excuse me," which is a condensation of
"Excuse me for not fully grasping your meaning."
Commodious--Convenient
A word of caution in
the use of the smaller dictionaries is necessary. The most elaborate definition
often fails to give an adequate idea of the signification of a term unless it
is accompanied with one or more quotations illustrating its use. The small
dictionaries give only the briefest definitions, without illustration, and
therefore should be interpreted with caution.
Some years ago a young
man of moderate attainments was very desirous of enlarging his vocabulary and
of using words beyond the ordinary vernacular of his neighborhood. To this end,
he made a small vest-pocket lexicon his constant companion.
Having consulted it in
the course of a conversation with a friend, he remarked, as he was about to
return it to his pocket, "What a commodious book this is." His friend
suggested that he again consult the "commodious" volume. With a look of
the utmost confidence he turned to the word, and exclaimed: "There! I knew
I was right. Commodious means convenient, and that is just what this little
book is."
It was useless to
explain that smallness sometimes renders a thing inconvenient, and this young
man, doubtless, still felicitates himself upon his intimate acquaintance with
that commodious pocket dictionary.
Ability, Capacity
A fond mother was told
by the principal of a boarding-school that her daughter would not be graduated,
as she lacked capacity. "Get her a capacity. Her father don’t stand on the
matter of expense. Get her anything she wants. He’ll foot the bill." But
for once the indulgent mother was obliged to learn that there are some things
money will not purchase. The father had the financial ability, but the daughter
lacked the necessary intellectual capacity. But we may have literary as well as
financial ability. Ability implies the power of doing; capacity the faculty of
receiving.
About, Almost
"This work is
about done." Use "almost done."
Acceptance, Acceptation
These words cannot be
used interchangeably. "He wrote signifying his acceptance of the
office." "According to the common acceptation of this term, he is a
knave."
Access, Accession
"He gained access
to the fort." "The only accession, which the Roman empire received
was the province of Britain."
Accident, Injury
Accident is sometimes
used incorrectly for injury. as "His accident was very painful."
Mutual, Common
Some men seek to be
great by copying great men’s faults. Dickens may say "Our Mutual
Friend," but Dickens’s strong point was not grammar. If you have a friend
in common with Smith, in speaking of him to Smith, say our common friend. The
word mutual should always convey a sense of reciprocity, as "Happy in our
mutual help and mutual love."
Myself
This word is generally
used for emphasis, as "I myself will do it," "I wrote it
myself." It should not be used for the unemphatic pronouns I and me, as in
"James and myself are going to town," "He gave the books to James
and myself." It is properly used with a reflexive verb without emphasis,
as "I will defend myself."
Negligence, Neglect
Negligence is the
habit, neglect the act, of leaving things undone. The adjectives negligent and
neglectful should, in like manner, be discriminated.
Never, Not
The word never is
sometimes colloquially used for not, as "I never remember to have seen
Lincoln." Say "I do not remember," etc. Never should not be used
in reference to events that can take place but once, as "Warren never died
at Lexington."
Love, Like
We may love our
parents, our children, our country, the truth; and we may like roast turkey and
cranberry sauce. "I love cherries," "I adore strawberries,"
are school-girl expressions that should be avoided. Love is an emotion of the
heart, and not of the palate.
Cheap, Low-priced
These words are often
used synonymously. A picture purchased for ten thousand dollars may be cheap;
another, for which ten dollars was paid, although low-priced, may be dear.
Mad, Angry
The frequent use of mad
in the sense of angry should be avoided. A person who is insane is mad. A dog
that has hydrophobia is mad. Figuratively we say mad, with rage, mad with
terror, mad with pain; but to be vexed, or angry, or out of patience, does not
justify the use of so strong a term as mad.
Most, Almost, Very
Sometimes incorrectly
used for almost, as "He writes to me most every week."
It is often loosely
used in the sense of very, as "This is a most interesting book." Aim
to use most only as the superlative of much, or many. Do not use the indefinite
article before it, as "This is a most beautiful picture." We may say
"This is the most beautiful picture," for here comparison is implied.
Portion, Part
"Give me the
portion of goods that falleth to me." "We traveled a part of the
distance on foot." Portion is applied to that which is set aside for a
special purpose, often as the share or allotment of an individual, as the wife’s
portion, the portion of the oldest son, etc. Part is a more general term.
Postal
Bryant would not have
said, "I will send you a postal by to-morrow’s mail." Postal card or
post card would be better.
Practical, Practicable
These words are
sometimes confounded. Practicable means "that may be done or
accomplished," and implies that the means or resources are available; as,
a practicable road, a practicable aim. Practical means "capable of being
turned to use or account;" as, "The practical man begins by doing;
the theorist often ends by thinking."
Predicate
This word is sometimes
incorrectly used in the sense of form or base; as, "He predicated his
statement on the information he had just received." Neither should it be
used in the sense of predict; as, "The sky is overcast, and I predicate a
storm tomorrow."
Prefer--than
"I prefer to walk
than to ride." Say "I prefer walking to riding;" or, "I
would rather walk than ride." "To skate is preferable than to
coast." Say "Skating is preferable to coasting."
Amount, Number
Amount applies to what
is thought of in the mass or bulk, as money, wheat, coal. Number is used when
we think of the individuals composing the mass, as men, books, horses, vessels.
Answer, Reply
An answer implies a
question. We may reply to a remark or assertion. A reply is more formal than an
answer.
Antagonize, Alienate,
Oppose
The word antagonize
should not be used in the sense of alienate; as, "Your proposition will
antagonize many supporters of the measure." "The Senate opposed the
bill which passed the House" is better than "antagonized the
bill."
Anticipate, Expect
"The arrival of
the President was hourly anticipated" is pompous. Use expected.
Any, At all
"He was so far
from the speaker’s platform that he could not hear any." Better "that
he could not hear," or "hear at all," or "hear what was
said."
Apparent, Evident
These words are often
used interchangeably. That which is apparent may be what it appears to be, or
it may be very different; that which is evident admits of no doubt. The same is
true of apparently and evidently.
Prejudice
"He is not the
best person for the position, but his many kindnesses to me prejudice me in his
favor." We may be prejudiced against a person or thing, but cannot be
prejudiced in favor. Use predispose.
Presume
This word is often
employed when think, believe, or daresay would be better.
Pretend, Profess
"I do not pretend
to be an orator." Pretend means to feign, to sham; as, "He pretends
to be asleep," and should not be used when claim or profess would better
suit the purpose.
Preventative
The correct form of the
word is preventive, not preventative.
Previous, Previously
The adjective previous
is often incorrectly used for the adverb previously; as, "Previous to his
imprisonment he made a confession of his crime."
Promise, Assure
"I promise you we
had a good time yesterday." Promise relates to the future, hence "I
assure you," etc., would be better.
Propose, Purpose
To propose is to set
before the mind for consideration; to purpose is to intend. "I propose
sending my son to college" should be "I purpose," etc. "I
propose that you go to college, my son." "Thank you, father, I accept
the proposal."
Sparrowgrass, Asparagus
The word sparrowgrass,
which is a corruption of the word asparagus, illustrates how readily the
uneducated mind associates an unusual term with another that is familiar, and
as the mental impression is received through the ear, and lacks that definiteness
which the printed form would give, the new idea, when repeated, often assumes a
picturesque, if not a ludicrous, form. Many of Mrs. Partington’s quaint sayings
furnish further illustration.
The following incident,
from a Western paper, shows the successive stages in the farmer’s mental
operations from the familiar terms skin, hide, oxhide, up to the unfamiliar
chemical term oxide, through which he was obliged to pass before he succeeded
in making known his wants: The man was in a brown study when he went into the
drug store.
"What can we do
for you?" inquired the clerk.
"I want
black--something of something," he said; "have you got any?"
"Probably we
have," replied the clerk, "but you’ll have to be more definite than
that to get it."
The farmer thought for
a moment.
"Got any black
sheepskin of something?" he asked.
"No; we don’t keep
sheepskins. We have chamois-skins, though."
"That ain’t it, I
know," said the customer. "Got any other kind of skins?"
"No."
"Skins--skins--skins!"
slowly repeated the man, struggling with his slippery memory. "Calfskin
seems to be something like it. Got any black calfskins of anything?"
"No, not
one," and the clerk laughed.
The customer grew red
in the face.
"Confound
it!" he said, "if it ain’t a skin, what in thunder is it?"
"Possibly it’s a
hide?" suggested the clerk.
"That’s it! That’s
it!" exclaimed the man.
"Have you got any
black hides of something or anything?"
The clerk shook his
head sadly as the man tramped up and down the store.
"Got any black
cowhide of anything?" he asked, after a moment’s thought.
The clerk’s face showed
a gleam of intelligence, and then broke into a smile.
"Possibly it’s
black oxide of manganese you want?" he said, quietly.
"Of course, that’s
it!" he exclaimed, as he threw his arms around the clerk’s neck. "I
knowed blamed well there was a skin or hide or something somewhere about the
thing," and he calmed down quietly and waited for what he wanted.
Accord, Give
"They accorded him
due praise." "They gave him the desired information."
Act, Action
"The best portion
of a good man’s life is his little, nameless, unremembered acts of kindness and
of love." "Suit the action to the word." Action suggests the
operation; act, the accomplished result.
Adherence, Adhesion
These words were once
interchangeable, but are now distinct. Adhesion relates to physical bodies;
adherence to mental states.
Adopt, Take
"What course will
you take?" is better than "What course will you adopt?"
Affect, Effect
These words are
sometimes confounded. "The climate affected their health." "They
sailed away without effecting their purpose."
Aggravate, Exasperate
To aggravate means to
intensify, to make worse; to exasperate means to provoke, to irritate. "To
aggravate the horrors of the scene." "His remarks exasperated
me." "His conduct aggravates me" should be "His conduct
annoys (or displeases, or irritates, or exasperates) me."
Alleviate, Relieve
These words differ
chiefly in degree. The latter is the stronger word.
Proposal, Proposition
A proposition implies
consideration or discussion; a proposal contemplates acceptance or rejection.
"Your proposition to build our new warehouse has received favorable
consideration, and we are ready to receive your proposals."
Providing, Provided
"You may go to
skate, providing you first finish your task." Incorrect. You should say
provided.
Proved, Proven
Proven is sometimes
incorrectly used for proved. "The evidence was complete and his guilt was
fully proved." Not proven is a legal term used in England to denote that
the guilt of the accused is not made out, though not disproved.
Quantity, Number
Quantity refers to the
how much; number to the how many. "He purchased a large quantity of wheat,
corn, apples, lime, and sand, and a number of houses, stores, chairs, and
books." It is, therefore, incorrect to say, "There was a large
quantity of bicycles in the yard," "He sold a large quantity of books
at auction."
Quite a few
In some parts of the
country this expression is in common use in the sense of many, a large number,
etc. "How many people were at church to-day?" "Quite a
few," meaning a considerable number.
Commence, Begin
Some persons always
commence, but never begin. The tendency toward pomp and parade in speech prompts
many persons to avoid the use of our strong, rugged Anglo-Saxon words, and to
substitute their high-sounding Latin equivalents, until, in time, the
preferable native forms come to be regarded as commonplace and objectionable.
American usage is more faulty than English in this regard. Use begin and
beginning more, and commence and, commencement less.
Complete, Finished
There is a distinction
in the use of these words that is not always observed. Complete signifies
nothing lacking, every element and part being supplied. That which is finished
has had all done to it that was intended. A vessel may be finished and yet be
incomplete.
Conclusion, End
The more pretentious
word conclusion is often used where the simple Anglo-Saxon word end would be
preferable.
Conscious, Aware
"He was aware of
the enemy’s designs." "Conscious of his fate, he boldly approached
the furious beast." Conscious relates to what is within our own mind;
aware to what is without.
Continual, Continuous
Continuous implies
uninterrupted, unbroken. Continual relates to acts that are frequently
repeated. "The continuous ride is often finished in five hours, but owing
to continual delays we were eight hours on the way."
Convict, Convince
The Irishman who brandished
his club and, exclaimed that he was open to conviction, but he would like to
see the man that could convince him, used a form of argument that was most
convincing, but failed in his discrimination of language. Convict refers to the
outer condition, and generally applies to something wrong; convince, which may
be used of either right or wrong, refers to the judgment.
Custom, Habit
Habit is a tendency
which leads us to do easily; custom grows out of the habitual doing or frequent
repetition of the same act. Custom refers to the usages of society, or of the
individual; habit refers more frequently to the individual acts. "Ill
habits gather by unseen degrees."
"Man yields to
custom as he bows to fate,
In all things
ruled--mind, body, and estate."
Want, Need
These words are often
used interchangeably, but should be discriminated. Need implies the lack; want
also implies the lack, but couples with it the wish to supply the lack.
"Some men need help, but will not ask for it; others want help (that is,
they need help, or think they do, and ask for it) and get it, too."
Way, Away
"He is way down in
Florida," is incorrect. "He is away down in Florida" is better
grammar. "He is in Florida" is still better. Down indicates the
direction, and away magnifies the distance. As most persons know the direction,
and as modern railway travel shortens long distances, the abbreviated sentence
is sufficiently full.
Ways, Way
"He is a long ways
from home" is a very common, but faulty expression. Say "Uncle
Charles is now a long way on his journey." "The boat is a good way
off the shore."
Whole, All
"The whole of the
scholars went to the fair to-day." "All of the school went to the
fair to-day." The sentences will be improved by transposing whole and all.
"All of the scholars went to the fair to-day," not half of them.
"The whole school went to the fair to-day," not a part of it. All
refers to the individual scholars; whole to the school as a unit.
Without, Unless
"He cannot miss
the way without he forgets my instructions." "I will not dig the
potatoes without Tom comes to help." Use unless instead of without.
Worse, More
"He dislikes
arithmetic worse than grammar." Use more instead of worse.
Rarely, Rare
"It is rarely that
you hear of a prodigal youth growing into an economical man." Rarely
should be rare to form the adjective attribute of the verb.
Real, Really
Real is often
incorrectly used as an adverb, especially by schoolgirls; as, "I think he
is real mean." The grammar will be improved by substituting really for
real, but the expression, as a whole, being applied to all kinds and degrees of
offenses, has become meaningless.
Real is often
carelessly used in the sense of very; as real pretty, real bright, real kind.
Recipe, Receipt
A recipe is a formula for
making some mixture or preparation of materials; a receipt is an acknowledgment
of that which has been received.
Region, Neighborhood
Region is a broader and
more comprehensive term, and should not be applied to the narrow limits of a
neighborhood.
Remit, Send
The word remit is often
used when send would be better. Remit means to send back, to forgive, to relax.
In its commercial sense it means to transmit or send money in payment of a
demand; as, "He remitted the amount by mail."
Residence, House
This pretentious word
is often used when house or home would be in better taste.
Deface, Disfigure
"The walls of many
public buildings are defaced by persons who desire that their names shall
remain when they are gone." "They disfigure their faces that they may
appear unto men to fast." Disfigure applies more generally to persons;
deface, to things.
Demean, Degrade
The word demean is
often incorrectly used in the sense of degrade, lower. It should be used in the
sense of behave, conduct, deport, and not in the sense of degrade.
Depot, Station
For many years the word
depot was largely employed in the sense of a railway station. Its primary
meaning is a warehouse or storehouse or military station. As applied to a
stopping place for railroad trains the English word station is greatly to be
preferred to the French word depot, and is rapidly coming into general use in
this country.
Description, Kind
"Flowers of every
description were found in his garden." In the above sense the word kind or
variety would be more appropriate.
Bring, Fetch, Carry
Bring implies motion
from the object toward the person who issues the command or makes the request.
Fetch implies two motions, first, toward the object; second, toward the person
who wishes it. The gardener, who is in the garden, calls to his servant, who is
at the barn, "John, bring me the rake. You will find it in the barn."
And if John is with him in the garden, he would say, "John, fetch me the
rake from the barn."
The use of fetch is
more common among English writers than with us. In fact, many speakers and
writers in America rarely use the word.
Carry is a more general
term, and means to convey, without thought of the direction.
Character, Reputation
These words are often
confounded. "Character," says Abbott, "is what a person is;
reputation is what he is supposed to be. Character is in himself, reputation is
in the minds of others. Character is injured by temptations and by wrong-doing;
reputation by slanders and libels. Character endures throughout defamation in
every form, but perishes where there is a voluntary transgression; reputation
may last through numerous transgressions, but be destroyed by a single, and
even an unfounded, accusation or aspersion."
Farther, Further
Although these words
are often used interchangeably even by good writers, yet a finer taste and a
keener power of discrimination is shown in the use of farther when referring to
literal distance, and of further in reference to quantity or degree; as,
"Each day’s journey removes them farther from home," "He
concluded his speech by remarking that he had nothing further to say."
Farther is the comparative of far; further is the comparative of forth.
Fault, Defect
Speakers and writers
often fail to discriminate in the use of these words. A defect implies a
deficiency, a lack, a falling short, while a fault signifies that there is
something wrong.
"Men still had
faults, and men will have them still,
He that hath none, and
lives as angels do
Must be an angel."
"It is in general
more profitable to reckon up our defects than to boast of our
attainments."
Few, Little
These words and their
comparatives, fewer, less, are often confounded. Few relates to number, or to
what may be counted; little refers to quantity, or to what may be measured. A
man may have few books and little money; he may have fewer friends and less
influence than his neighbor. But do not say "The man has less friends than
his neighbor."
Each other, One another
While some excellent
authorities use these expressions interchangeably, most grammarians and authors
employ each other in referring to two persons or things, and one another when
more than two are considered; as, "Both contestants speak kindly of each
other." "Gentlemen are always polite to one another."
Those who prefer to
have wide latitude in speech will be glad to know that Murray, in one of the
rules in his grammar, says, "Two negatives in English destroy one
another."
Shakespeare says,
"It is a good divine that follows his own instructions. I can easier teach
twenty what were good to be done, than be one of the twenty to follow mine own
teaching." This is as true of expression as of morals.
Either, Neither
"Palms and
beautiful flowers lined the hall on either side," is a common but faulty
form of expression. Either refers to one of two things. In the foregoing
sentence the thought is that both sides of the hall were lined, hence the word
both should have been used. If, however, each side of the hall is thought of
separately, then each, would be the proper word to employ.
"Either of the two
books will please you." "Any of the three books will prove
satisfactory." "Any one of the five men would make a good
candidate." "Neither of the two men will serve." "None of
the ten men were present." "Not one of all the houses was left
standing." These sentences represent the best usage with regard to either,
neither, and also of any, none, any one, not one.
These kind
Adjectives implying
number must agree with the nouns which they qualify. This and that qualify
nouns in the singular; these and those belong to nouns in the plural.
"These kind of
potatoes grow well in this soil." Use this. "This twenty years have I
known him." Use these. "The beam was two foot above my head,"
Use feet. "For this, among other reasons, I abandoned the
profession." Say "For this reason, among others, I abandoned the
profession." "He rides the bicycle daily, and by this means he
preserves his health." "The partners were all honest, courteous, and
industrious, and by these means acquired wealth." The word means being
either singular or plural, the two preceding sentences are both correct.
Some means or another
"By some means or
another he always gets the better part of the bargain." This sentence may
be corrected by saying "one means or another," or "some means or
other."
Than
After other, otherwise,
else, or an adjective in the comparative degree, than should be used, and not
but or except.
"No other way but
this was open to him." Use than.
"History and
philosophy cannot otherwise affect the mind but for its enlargement and
benefit." Use than.
"Flowers are often
nothing else but cultivated weeds." Use than.
"He no sooner
entered the bridge but he met an infuriated bull coming toward him." Use
than. "He offered no other objection except the one already
mentioned." Use than.
"He read five
other books on ’Crime and Its Causes’ in addition to those you named." Use
than.
With equal propriety we
may say, "He offered no objection except the one already mentioned,"
or "He read five books on ’Crime and Its Causes’ in addition to those you
named." It is the use of the word other, or otherwise, or else, that makes
necessary the correlative term than.
Besides
After else and other
the preposition besides is sometimes employed.
"Other boys
besides these are mischievous."
"Other arts
besides music are elevating and inspiring."
"We must have
recourse to something else besides punishment."
It will be observed
that the use of besides in this section differs from the use of than in the
preceding discussion. "Other... than" is exclusive of those
mentioned; whereas, "other... besides" includes those mentioned.
Other
"Iron is more
useful than all the metals." The faultiness of this sentence becomes
apparent when we remember that iron itself is a metal and is included in the
word metals, which forms one side of the comparison. In short, "Iron is
more useful than iron together with all the other metals." This statement
is absurd. The sentence should, therefore, read, "Iron is more useful than
all the other metals."
"The Washington
monument is higher than any monument in America." Since it is in America,
and as it cannot be higher than itself, the sentence is made correct by adding
the word other; as, "The Washington monument is higher than any other
monument in America."
"This book, which
I have just finished, is superior to any work on the subject that I have yet
seen." Say "to any other work."
"Of all other
creatures, man is the most highly endowed." Say "of all
creatures," etc.
"No general was
ever so beloved by his soldiers." Say "No other general," etc.
"Nothing delights
him so much as a storm at sea." "Nothing else delights him,"
etc.
One’s, His
Whether we should say
"One ought to know one’s own mind," or "One ought to know his
own mind," is a question that the critics have earnestly discussed, but
have never settled, except as each settles it for himself. The masculine
pronoun is often used with an antecedent whose gender is not known. There can,
therefore, be no objection to the use of his on the question of gender. As a
matter of euphony, his is preferable to one’s. Both have the sanction of good
usage.
None
Although literally
signifying no one, the word none may be used with a plural verb, having the
force of a collective noun.
"None but the
brave deserves the fair."--Dryden.
"None knew thee
but to love thee,
None named thee but to
praise."--Halleck.
I look for ghosts; but
none will force Their way to me."--Wordsworth.
"Of all the girls
that e’er were seen, There’s none so fine as Nelly."--Swift.
All, Whole
The word all is often
incorrectly used for the whole.
"The river rose
and spread over all the valley." This should be "over the whole
valley."
"The day being
stormy, the members of Class A were all the children at school to-day."
Correct by saying "were the only children at school to-day."
Perpetually,
Continually
Perpetually is not
synonymous with continually. Perpetually means never-ceasing. That which is
done continually may be subject to interruptions.
Persuade, Advise
"Almost thou
persuadest me to be a Christian." Paul had advised many persons to become
Christians, some of whom, like Agrippa, were almost persuaded.
Wharf, Dock
These words are
sometimes confounded. The wharf is the pier, or landing, upon which the vessel
unloads her cargo. The dock is the artificial waterway, or basin, formed by the
wharves. "The vessel came into the dock and was made fast to the
wharf."
Contemptible,
Contemptuous
Contemptible is
sometimes incorrectly used for contemptuous. A story is told of Richard Parson,
an English scholar and critic. A gentleman being in dispute with him, angrily
exclaimed, "My opinion of you is most contemptible, sir," upon which
Parson quickly retorted, "I never knew an opinion of yours that was not
contemptible."
Healthy, Wholesome
These terms are not
synonymous. Toadstools may be healthy, but they would not be regarded as
wholesome. Plants and animals are healthy when the conditions of their growth
are favorable. They are wholesome when, as food, they promote the health of
those persons who eat them.
In a fix
Many persons instead of
saying "He is in trouble," or "He is in an awkward
position," or "He is perplexed," or embarrassed, employ the
vulgarism, "He is in a fix." Although Shakespeare may say, "This
was the most unkindest cut of all," and De Quincey may write, "Poor
Aroar cannot live and cannot die--so that he is in an almighty fix," we
lesser mortals are forbidden such expressions.
Fly, Flee
In a general sense fly
is applied to winged creatures and flee to persons. "What exile from
himself can flee?" "When the swallows homeward fly." The past
tense forms are sometimes confused, as, "The inhabitants flew to the fort
for safety," "The wild geese have all fled to the South." The
principal parts of the verbs are:
Present.Past.Perf. part.fly,flew,flown.flee,fled,fled. The verbs flew and fled in the foregoing
sentences should be transposed. Fly implies motion either from or toward. Flee
implies motion from. Fly may be used, in a figurative sense, of persons, to
indicate great speed as of wings. "I flew to his rescue." "He
flew to my rescue." "Resist the devil and he will flee from
you."
The word flown is
sometimes used erroneously as the past tense or perfect participle of the verb
flow. The parts of this verb are flow, flowed, flowed. "The river has
overflowed (not overflown) its banks."
Get, Got
Because a horse is
willing is no reason why he should be ridden to death. The verb get and its
past-tense form got admit of many meanings, as the following, from an old
English publication, fully proves: "I got on horseback within ten minutes
after I got your letter. When I got to Canterbury I got a chaise for town; but
I got wet through before I got to Canterbury, and I have got such a cold as I
shall not be able to get rid of in a hurry. I got to the Treasury about noon, but,
first of all, I got shaved and dressed. I soon got into the secret of getting a
memorial before the Board, but I could not get an answer then. However, I got
intelligence from the messenger that I should most likely get an answer the
next morning. As soon as I got back to my inn I got my supper and got to bed.
It was not long before I got to sleep.
When I got up in the
morning I got myself dressed, and then got my breakfast, that I might get out
in time to get an answer to my memorial. As soon as I got it I got into the
chaise and got to Canterbury by three, and about teatime I got home. I have got
nothing more to say."
Those who are disposed
to overwork the words get and got will find it interesting and profitable to
read the foregoing exercise, substituting other words for those in italics.
With have the word got
is generally superfluous; as, "I have got a cold," "I have got
to go to Boston this evening," "Have you got Hires’s root-beer on
draught?" For "I did not get to meet your cousin," say "I
had no opportunity," or "I was prevented," etc.
Another very faulty use
of got is heard in such expressions as "He got killed," "They
got beaten," "She got cured," etc. Was or were would be more
appropriate.
Since to get means to
obtain, to procure, to gain, the use of the word is justified in such
expressions as "I have got a larger farm than you have, because I have
worked harder for it." "I have got a better knowledge of the Pacific
coast than he has, because I traveled extensively through that region."
And yet, when we have been overworked, the physician usually prescribes a
period of absolute rest; so, in view of the multifarious uses to which get has
been applied, would it not be well to permit it to retire for a time, in order
that it may the more quickly be rejuvenated.
Guess, Reckon,
Calculate, Allow
"I guess he is not
going to vote to-day." "I reckon we are going to have fair weather
now." "I calculate this ground would grow good potatoes."
"I allow she’s the prettiest girl that ever visited these parts." The
foregoing sentences may be improved by recasting them. "I think he is not
going to (or will not) vote to-day." "I believe we shall now have
fair weather." "I suppose this ground would yield fine
potatoes." "I regard her as the handsomest lady that has ever visited
this place (or neighborhood, or locality).
Gums, Overshoes
"Tom is outside,
cleaning his gums on the mat." While a mat will do very well for
overshoes, a tooth-brush and sozodont would be better for the gums.
Funny
"Isn’t it funny
that Smith, who resided in Chicago, should have died the same day that his
father died in Boston?" "Isn’t it funny that the murderer who escaped
hanging on a mere technicality of the law should have been killed the next day
in a railroad accident?" "How funny that these maples should grow so
tall on this mountain top!" "It is funny to think that James, who now
pays his addresses to me, should once have been in love with my youngest
sister." The foregoing illustrations are not more incongruous than those we
daily hear. Odd, strange, peculiar, unusual, represent some of the ideas
intended to be conveyed by that much-abused word.
Good deal, Great deal
This idiom is defended
by some authorities as being in perfectly good use, and by others it is
denounced as being incorrect. Both good deal and greet deal are somewhat
colloquial, and should be used sparingly in writing.
Had better, Would
better
Like a good deal and
some other idioms, this expression is denounced by some writers and defended by
others. Grammatical construction supports more strongly the forms would better,
would rather, etc. "I had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God,
than to dwell in the tents of wickedness." "I would rather read than
drive to-day." "I would rather not go." Omit rather and the
superiority of would over had becomes apparent.
If, Whether
"I do not know if
he sold his farm or exchanged it for city property." Use whether.
Illy, Ill
Do not use illy for
ill. The former is becoming obsolete, and the latter, as an adverb, is taking
its place. Say "An ill-ventilated room," not "an illy-ventilated
room."
Implicit
This word means tacitly
understood, resting on the word or authority of another. It should not be used
in the sense of unbounded, unlimited.
Individual
This word should not be
used broadly in the sense of a person, but should always convey some thought of
a single thing or person, as opposed to many.
Journal
As this word is from
the French, jour, day, it should not be applied to a monthly or quarterly
magazine.
Know as
"I do not know as
I can see you to-day." Say know that.
Last, Latest
"Did you receive
my last letter?"
"I hope not. I
enjoy your letters very much, and I trust you may live to write many
more."
Cunning
This word is much used
by young ladies in speaking of what is small, or dainty, or pleasing, as
"A cunning little bonnet," "A cunning little watch," etc.
While the word properly embodies the idea of skill or dexterity on the part of
the workman, and while the appreciation of such skill, in speaking of the
artist or artisan, might be expressed by cunning, it is better not to use the
word in referring to the product of the workmanship.
Curious
Curious means
inquisitive, rare. In the sense of strange or remarkable, its use should be
guarded.
Cute
This word is often used
colloquially in the sense of clever, sharp, shrewd, ingenious, cunning. It is
doubtless an abbreviation of acute. It is not found in good literary usage.
Favor, Resemble
The use of the word
favor in the sense of resemble is a provincialism that should be avoided.
"The son favors the father" is correct if the meaning be that the son
shows favor or kindness to the father; but if reference to their similarity of
appearance is intended, the verb resemble should be employed.
Balance, Remainder
This word, like
numerous others, has been borrowed from the commercial world, and has had such
a wide use that its faultiness is not noticed even by many who regard
themselves as careful speakers and writers. "I cut down part of the timber
this year, and expect to cut the balance next spring." "My cousin
will remain with us the balance of this week." "James ate half of the
melon to-day, and will eat the balance to-morrow." In these and all
similar cases the word remainder should be used. Balance is a term that applies
to accounts, and signifies the amount necessary to be added to one side of the
account in order to make it equal the other.
Behave
"Now, my children,
you must behave while I am gone." The mother intended to ask her children
to behave well, but as behave is a neutral word, and may be followed by well or
ill, her form of expression permits the children to supply whichever adverb
suits them the better. Behave requires a qualifying word to make the meaning
clear.
Bound
"He was determined
to study medicine," not "He was bound," etc. Bound implies that
he was under a bond or obligation to another, rather than impelled by the
action of his own mind.
Better, Best
While some good writers
violate the rule, yet the best authorities restrict the use of the comparative
degree to two objects.
"Mary is the
better scholar of the two."
"Although both are
young, Susan is the younger."
"Of two evils,
choose the lesser," not the least.
Former, First
Former and latter being
adjectives of the comparative degree, should be used in speaking of two
objects. When more than two objects are named, use first and last.
"My sons, John and
Luther, are both at college. The first expects to study law, and the last to
study medicine." Use former and latter.
"New York,
Philadelphia, and Chicago are the most populous cities in the United States.
The former has long been at the front; the latter has only recently entered the
race." Use first and last instead of former and latter.
These, Those
When objects near and
remote are referred to, this and its plural these are applied to the objects
near at hand, that and its plural those to objects at a distance.
When reference is made
to contrasted antecedent terms, this and these are applied to the latter; that
and those to the former, as
"Farewell my
friends! farewell my foes!
My peace with these, my
love with those!"
--Burns.
Fictitious Writer
Do not say a fictitious
writer when you mean a writer of fiction.
Firstly
First is an adverb as
well as an adjective. We should, therefore, say first, secondly, thirdly, and
not firstly, secondly, etc.
First-rate
An article may be rated
in quality as first, or second, or third. If it rates first, it may be called a
first-rate article. The word is properly used as an adjective, but should not
be employed as an adverb, as in the sentence, "He sings first-rate."
Fix, Mend, Repair
Fix means to make fast,
but its incorrect use in the sense of mend, repair, arrange, is so common that
the
word when properly used
sounds strange, if not strained. "To fix up the room," "to fix
up the accounts," "to fix up matters with my creditors,"
"to fix the rascals who betrayed me," are examples illustrating the
looseness with which the word is used.
Round, Square
When a thing is round
or square it cannot be rounder or squarer. These adjectives do not admit of
comparative and superlative forms. But we may say more nearly round or less
nearly square.
States, Says
"He states he is
going fishing to-morrow." States is too formal a word, and should be used
only of some important assertion. "He says he is going," etc.
Stop, Stay
To stop is to cease
moving. "At what hotel do you stop" should be "At what hotel do
you stay." "When you come to the city stay with me," not stop
with me.
Subtile, Subtle
Subtile means thin,
fine, rare, delicate; subtle means sly, artful, cunning, elusive. "More
subtile web Arachne cannot spin." "He had to contend with a subtle
foe."
Summons
He was summonsed to
appear before the judge" should be "He was summoned to appear,"
etc.
Tasty
Often used in
colloquial speech when tasteful would be better. Tastily for tastefully is
still worse.
Team
Properly this word
relates only to the horses, and does not include the carriage.
Those kind, These sort
"It is unpleasant
to have to associate with those kind of people." "These sort of sheep
are the most profitable." Kind and sort are nouns of the singular number;
these and those are plural, and, according to the laws of grammar, the adjective
and noun must agree in number. The corrected sentences will read: "It is
unpleasant to have to associate with this kind of people." "This sort
of sheep is the most profitable." The fault arises by associating in the
mind the adjectives these and those with the nouns sheep and people, which
nouns are more prominent in the mind than the nouns kind and sort. If the ear
is not satisfied, the sentences may readily be recast; as, "It is
unpleasant to have to associate with people of that kind." "Sheep of
this sort are the most profitable."
Transpire, Happen
This word, from trans,
across, through, and spirare, to breathe, means, physiologically, to pass off
in the form of vapor or insensible perspiration, or, botanically, to evaporate
from living cells. Its general meaning is to become known, to escape from
secrecy.
It is frequently
employed in the sense of to occur, to come to pass, but this use is condemned
by the best critics in England and America. "The proceedings of the secret
session of the council soon transpired." This sentence illustrates the
true meaning of the word.
Make, Manufacture
These words may, in
some cases, be used interchangeably, but make has much the wider range of
meanings. The following story, related by Eli Perkins, will illustrate this
fact:
I was talking one day
with Mr. Depew, President of the New York Central Railroad, about demand and
supply. I said the price of any commodity is always controlled by the demand
and supply.
"Not always,
Eli," said Depew; "demand and supply don’t always govern prices.
Business tact sometimes governs them."
"When," I
asked, "did an instance ever occur when the price did not depend on demand
and supply?"
"Well," said
Mr. Depew, "the other day I stepped up to a German butcher, and, out of
curiosity, asked:
"’What’s the price
of sausages?’
"’Dwenty cends a
bound,’ he said.
"’You asked
twenty-five this morning,’ I replied.
"’Yah; dot vas ven
I had some. Now I ain’t got none, I sell him for dwenty cents. Dot makes a
repudation for selling cheab, und I don’t lose noddings.’
"You see,"
said Mr. Depew, laughing, "I didn’t want any sausage and the man didn’t
have any; no demand and no supply, and still the price of sausage went down
five cents."
"Well, there are
strange things in this world," I said. "Now, take the words
manufacture and make. I always thought that both words meant the same
thing."
"Why, they do,
Eli," said Mr. Depew.
"Not always,"
I said.
"Now, when could
they have a different meaning?"
"Why, this morning
I came down from Albany on a Central car manufactured to carry fifty
passengers, but it was made to carry seventy-two people."
"Yes, I dare say;
but we’ll now talk about the Behring Sea question."
Truth, Veracity
"The veracity of
his statement is doubted." The sentence should be, "The truth of his
statement is doubted," or "In making that statement his veracity is
doubted." Veracity is applied to the person; truth to the thing.
Try the experiment
"They are trying
the experiment of running railroad trains by electricity." This should be,
"They are making the experiment," etc. The word experiment contains
the idea of trial, hence, to try the experiment is to try the trial.
Little piece
"I will go with
you a little piece." A short distance or a part of the way would be more
appropriate.
Every confidence
"I have every
confidence in his ability to succeed." Confidence is a unit; every implies
several units considered separately. "I have the greatest confidence in
his ability to succeed" is correct.
Ugly
This word properly
applies to the appearance of a person or thing, hence such expressions as
"He has an ugly temper," "This is an ugly customer,"
"That was an ugly rumor," etc., although common in colloquial
discourse, should be avoided in dignified address.
Unbeknown
This is a provincialism
that should be avoided. Use unknown.
Underhanded
Often incorrectly used
for underhand; as "That was a contemptible and underhanded trick."
Calligraphy
This word means not
writing, simply, but beautiful writing; hence, to say, "His calligraphy is
wretched" is equivalent to saying, "His excellent writing is
poor," which is a contradiction of terms.
Can but, Cannot but
These expressions are
sometimes confounded. "If I perish, I can but perish," means "I
can only perish," or "I can do no more than perish." "I
cannot but speak of the things I have heard" means that I am under a moral
necessity to speak of these things. The past tense forms could but and could
not but should be, in like manner, discriminated.
Casualty, Casuality
The latter word is
sometimes used in place of the former. The first is legitimate; the second is
without authority. The words specialty and speciality have a termination
similar to the above. They may generally be used interchangeably and are both
legitimate.
Complected.
"The lady is light
complected, has blue eyes, and auburn hair." Complected is a provincialism
without sanction. "The lady is of light complexion, has blue eyes,"
etc.
Disremember
This word is obsolete.
Use forget, or "I do not remember."
Lie, Lay
The verbs lie and lay
are often confounded, even by intelligent persons. Lie does not take an object.
We cannot lie a thing. It is therefore intransitive.
Lay, which means to
place in position, requires an object. We lay a book on a table, or bricks on
the wall. It is therefore transitive.
The principal parts of
the first verb are lie, lay, lain; and of the second, lay, laid, laid. The word
lay is found in both, and this is, in part, accountable for the confusion. The
most frequent errors result from using laid, the past tense form of the
transitive verb, when the word lay, the past tense form of the intransitive
verb, should be used. The ear naturally expects the usual past tense ending of
the d or t sound, and as that is absent in the past tense of lie, the past
tense form of the other verb is substituted. For the same reason the participle
form laid is often incorrectly used for lain.
"He told me to lie
down, and I lay down," not laid down. "I told him to lay the book
down, and he laid it down." "The ship lay at anchor." "They
lay by during the storm." "The book is lying on the shelf."
"He lay on the ground and took cold." "They lay in ambush."
"Lie low or he will discover you." "The goods are still lying on
his hands." "Time lay heavily on their hands." "We must lie
over at the next station." "A motion was made that the resolution lie
on the table." "Now I lie down to sleep." "Now I lay me
down to sleep."
The foregoing sentences
illustrate the correct usage of these confusing verbs.
As, That
"Did your cousin
go to town yesterday?" "Not as I know." Better, "Not that I
know." Better still, "I do not know." "I do not know as I
shall go." Use that for as.
Bad toothache
As it is a rare thing
to have a good toothache, we scarcely need the adjective bad to distinguish
between the two kinds of toothache. Say severe.
Beautifully, Beautiful
After verbs of seeing,
feeling, tasting, and smelling, the adverb is often incorrectly used for the
adjective. "The colonel looked handsomely in his military dress,"
"I feel splendidly to-day," "This peach tastes badly,"
"The rose smells sweetly," are incorrect. Use handsome for
handsomely, very well or in good spirits for splendidly, tastes bad or has a
disagreeable taste for badly, and sweet for sweetly.
Beg, Beg leave
"I beg to announce
the sale of a collection of rare and costly rugs." "I beg to
acknowledge your kindness in sending me this handsome present." In each
case say "I beg leave to," etc.
Due, Owing
His success was due to
his honesty and energy." That is due which should be paid as a debt; that
is owing which is referred to as a cause or source.
"The bill is now
due and payable at the gas office." "His success was owing to his
honesty and energy."
Each, Every
"I see him at his
office each day of the week." In this sentence the word every would be
better. Each refers to single days particularized. Here reference is made to
what occurs on all days without exception.
Both words refer to
nouns in the singular, hence such expressions as the following are incorrect:
"Every soldier and sailor stood at their post." "The prisoners
were discharged and went each their several ways." Correct by saying,
"The prisoners were discharged and went each his several way,"
"Every soldier and sailor stood at his post."
Each, Both
"Both parties
maintained their original positions." As the parties are thought of
separately, the sentence should be: "Each party maintained its original
position." "Both parties strove to place their best candidates upon
the ticket" is correct, because the parties are thought of collectively.
Both, Both of
Both is used alone
before nouns and both of before pronouns. "Both men have studied the
currency question." "Both of them are well informed in matters
relating to the currency."
Ever, Never
"Let him be ever
so rich," says Emerson. "You spend ever so much money in entertaining
your equals and betters," says Thackeray. "Though he run ever so
fast, he cannot win the race." Writers and grammarians differ, some
preferring ever, others never.
Every once in a while
This is a cumbersome,
awkward expression that should be avoided. Occasionally, frequently, at
intervals, are among the expressions that may be used in its place.
Exceptionable, Exceptional
"He enjoyed
exceptionable opportunities for acquiring the Greek language." Say
exceptional opportunities.
Female, Woman
The word female is
often employed when woman would be better. Female applies to all of the
feminine gender, including the brute creation.
Poet, Poetess
The tendency to
increase the number of nouns with the feminine ending ess should be checked.
Avoid poetess, authoress, doctress, and other newly-invented words of this
kind.
Fewer, Less
Fewer refers to number,
less to quantity. "He had less friends than I, and yet he was
elected." Say "He had fewer friends." "There were no less
than fifty cows in the field." Use fewer.
Right smart
In some portions of the
South the expression right smart is employed in colloquial discourse to convey
the idea of a large quantity or in large measure; as, "We have right smart
of peaches this summer," meaning "We have a large crop of
peaches;" "He knows right smart of Latin" for "He knows
considerable Latin" or "He is well versed in Latin."
Little bit
"Will you have
some of this pudding?"
"If you please.
Give me a little bit."
"Did you injure
yourself when you fell?"
"No; but I soiled
my clothing a little bit."
A small portion or
piece, in the first sentence, and slightly, in the second, would serve as good
equivalents for a little bit.
Sight
"There was a sight
of people at the fair to-day." In the sense of a large number, this word,
like the word lot, should be avoided.
Crowd
A dozen persons may
constitute a crowd if they push and jostle one another by reason of
insufficient space. A thousand men will not form a crowd if all have ample room
to sit or stand or move about.
Chuck-full
This word is not
authorized. Chock-full and choke-full may be used, but are not elegant.
Contemplate, Propose
Contemplate is often
incorrectly used for propose; as, "I contemplate going to the
country."
Dispense, Dispense with
These expressions are
not synonymous. To dispense is to give; to dispense with is to do without. The
pharmacist dispenses medicines; we should be pleased if we could dispense with
them.
Dry, Thirsty
Dry is often
incorrectly used in the sense of thirsty; as, "I am dry; let me have a
glass of water." To say, "I am dry; my waterproof and umbrella kept
out the rain," is correct.
Dutch, German
Do not call a German a
Dutchman. A Dutchman comes from Holland, a German from Germany.
Evacuate, Vacate
Evacuate means to make
empty, and should not be used in the sense of to go away, to vacate.
Different than,
Different to
"The school is
conducted in a very different manner than it used to be." "This
basket of roses is different to yours." The above and similar expressions
are decided vulgarisms, and should be avoided. "The school is conducted in
a very different manner from what it used to be." "This basket of
roses is different from yours."
Drive, Ride
Some confusion exists
in the use of the words drive and ride. In England the distinction is made of
applying ride to going on horseback and drive to going in a carriage, whether
you ride or drive. That usage is not closely followed in this country. He who
guides the horse drives; the rest of the company ride. The noun and participial
forms are more excusable than the verb. "Jones asked me to drive with him
this afternoon." But as Jones expects to do the driving himself, the
speaker should have said, "Jones asked me to take a ride," or
"go driving," or "take a drive," etc.
Couple, Several
The word couple is
often incorrectly used in the sense of several; as, a couple of horses, mules,
birds, trees, houses, etc. The use of the word couple is not only limited to
two, but to two that may be coupled or yoked together. A man and wife are
spoken of as a couple. We speak of a span of horses, a yoke of oxen, a brace of
ducks, a pair of gloves.
Directly, Immediately,
As soon as
A faulty English use of
the above words has found some favor in the United States. "Directly the
whistle blew the workmen left the shop." Say "As soon as the whistle
blew," etc. "Immediately he closed his speech his opponent rose to
reply." Say "When" or "As soon as he closed his
speech," etc.
Directly denotes
without any delay; immediately implies without any interposition of other
occupation.
Agreeably disappointed
When our hopes are
blasted, our plans balked, our expectations defeated, our intentions thwarted,
we are disappointed. We prefer the agreeable to the disagreeable, and plan and
labor to secure it. When our plans fail we are disappointed, but not agreeably
disappointed. If the new conditions, which are not of our seeking, prove
agreeable, it is only after the sense of disappointment has vanished.
Allude to, Refer to,
Mention
The word allude is
often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of language. It means to hint
at by remote suggestions, to speak of figuratively or sportively.
Whatever is directly
mentioned, or spoken of, or described, cannot be said to be alluded to. The
terms differ in degree, the first being the weakest. An allusion is an indirect
reference.
Among the rest
"Mary sat on the
beach among the rest." Say "with the rest."
Peruse
This is one of those
high-sounding terms too often employed when read would be much better.
Emigrants, Immigrants
These words are
sometimes confounded. "Did you see the emigrants on the ’Indiana,’ which
arrived this morning?" "Did the immigrants go directly to
Italy?" Exchange the italicized words in the two sentences and they will
be correctly used.
Somewheres
The terminal s should
be omitted in such words as anywheres, somewheres, nowheres, anyways, hereabouts,
thereabouts, whereabouts. In such cases as "Whereabouts did you find
him?" and "We knew his whereabouts," the s is properly retained.
Apart, Aside
"May I see you
apart from the others?" It should be, "May I see you privately"
or "aside"?
Fire, Throw
We fire a gun, but
throw a stone. To fire a stone, fire him out of the house, fire him out of our
employ, may be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never
use them and good speakers should avoid them.
The First, Single
"I have not found
the first objection to his candidacy." Say "a single objection,"
or "no objection."
First two
Such has been the
strong desire to continue to use forms of expression that we have long used
that not a little time and effort have been expended in the endeavor to make
the wrong appear right. It is an accepted fact, however, that a large majority
of the best speakers and writers now say the first two, the last five, etc.,
rather than the two first, the five last.
Future, Subsequent
The word future is
sometimes used instead of subsequent; as, "Until he was eighteen years old
his conduct was marked by cruelty and malice, but his future life was
characterized by kindness and generosity." Future looks forward from the
present, and not from some point of time in the past.
Gent’s pants
"Gent’s pants
scoured and pressed." Business signs and business advertisements are
responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say gent’s nor pants. Even pantaloons is
not so good a word as trousers.
Sit, Set
Few words afford a more
fertile field for grammatical blundering than the verbs sit and set. The
important fact to remember in the use of the words is that sit, in modern
usage, is an intransitive verb, and does not take an object, while set, which
means to place in position, is transitive, and requires an object to complete
its meaning. You cannot sit a thing, but you do set or place a thing.
The verb sit undergoes
a slight change with the change of tense or time. "I sit at the window
today." "I sat at the window yesterday." "I have sat at the
window daily for many years." "Sitting at the window, I saw the storm
arise." "Having sat at his table, I can testify to his
hospitality."
The transitive verb set
undergoes no tense changes. "See me set this vase on the table." "He
set his seal to the paper yesterday." "Jones will not set the world
on fire with his writings." "Having set my affairs in order, I
returned home." "I sit down." "I sat down." "I
set him down."
There are many
intransitive uses of the verb set; as, "The sun sets," "The tide
sets toward the south," "The fruit has set," "He set out
for Boston."
There is a difference
of opinion as to whether we should say "The coat sets well" or
"The coat sits well," with the greater weight in favor of sits.
"The hen sits on her eggs." "She is a sitting hen." When
the verb is used reflexively use set and not sat; as, "I set me down
beside her," not "I sat me down beside her."
Anyhow
This word can scarcely
be regarded as elegant, and should not be used except in colloquial style.
Awful
Few words among the
many that go to make up the vocabulary of American slang have been in longer
use and have a wider range than the word awful. From the loftiest and most
awe-inspiring themes to the commonest trifle, this much-abused word has been
employed. A correct speaker or writer almost fears to use the word lest he
should suggest the idea of slang, and thus detract from the subject to which
the word might most fitly be applied.
Even the grammatical
form of the word is often violated in such expressions as "Isn’t he awful
nice?" "That hat of hers is awful pretty." To say awfully nice
and awfully pretty would improve the grammar, but the gross vulgarism remains.
The word, when properly
used, means "inspiring with awe or dread" often accompanied with
reverence, as when Milton says:
"The trumpet spake not to the armed throng; And kings sat still
with awful eye, As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by." Back up
In the sense of
support, this, and the shorter expression back, are doubtless borrowed from the
commercial world. While they may be tolerated in conversation, they must be
regarded as slang.
Bulk
This word is often
incorrectly used for most or the greater part; as, "The bulk of the people
opposed the measure." Bulk refers to size, not to numbers.
Burglarize
This word is often used
by the more sensational reporters in their reports of crime. It should be
avoided.
But what, But that
"I don’t know but
what I shall have to punish him." The sentence should read, "I don’t
know but that I shall have to punish him." It is equivalent to, "I
think that I shall have to punish him." The omission of but will convey
the opposite meaning. "I don’t know that I shall have to punish him"
is equivalent to "I think that I shall not have to punish him."
Calculate
A provincialism often
used in the sense of think, deem, suppose, believe; as, "I calculate the
train will be here in ten minutes."
Calculated, Liable
This word is often
incorrectly used in the sense of likely, liable, apt; as, "His utterances
are calculated to injure his cause." In the proper use of the word there
is present the idea of purpose or intent.
Leave, Quit
Leave is often
incorrectly used for quit; as, "That eminent actor expects soon to leave
the stage." It would be a misfortune if he should take the stage with him.
Say "quit the stage."
"Henry has quit smoking."
Here left off or stopped would be better.
"The President
gave me lief to speak with him." Say "gave me leave."
Let it alone and let me
be are preferable to leave it alone and leave me be.
A 1
"I have just read
an A 1 article on the currency, question in the last issue of the North
American Review!" This is an expression from the vocabulary of business
converted into the slang of the street.
Luck
Luck, like behavior,
may be either good or bad. "The carpenter has met with luck; he fell and broke
his leg." "The manager has met with luck; his salary has been
doubled." The adjective lucky and the adverb luckily are used only in a
favorable sense.
Make way with
This expression is
often incorrectly used for make away with; as, "The Judge gave the
boot-blacks a Christmas dinner, and the begrimed urchins quickly made way with
the turkey and cranberry sauce." Say "made away with," etc.
To make way is to make
room, to provide a way, to dispatch.
In our midst
"The doctor
settled in our midst." Say "among us," or "in our
neighborhood."
Indorse, Endorse
From the Latin dorsum,
the back, these words have come to mean the writing of one’s name across the
back of a check or draft or other commercial paper to signify its transfer to
another or to secure its payment. To indorse a man’s arguments or opinions is
an incorrect use of the word.
While both forms of
spelling the word are in good usage, indorse seems to be coming into more
general favor.
In, Into
In is often incorrectly
used for into; as, "He hurried up the street and rushed in the
store." We walk in a room when the walking is wholly within the apartment;
we walk into a room when we enter it from some other room or from the outside.
Just going to
"I was just going
to write you a letter." Say "I was just about to write you a
letter."
Kind of
"James swallowed
the dose, and now feels kind of sick." Use slightly or somewhat, or some
other modifier, instead of kind of.
Knowing
Do not use knowing for
skilful or intelligent. "He is a knowing artist." "See him prick
up his ears; he is a knowing cur."
Clever, Smart
In England the word
clever is applied to one who is bright, intelligent, ready, apt; in the United
States it is often misapplied to one who is good-natured, kind, or
accommodating.
"Do you believe in
corporal punishment for stupid school-children?"
"Yes; a spanking
always makes them smart." To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence,
aptness, the adjectives clever, bright, intelligent, apt, are better than the
word smart.
Posted, Informed
"He is well posted
on all matters relating to cattle-breeding." Say informed.
Perspire, Sweat
While all mankind
belongs to the animal kingdom, and no person can feel offended at being called
an animal, yet society observes certain distinctions in speaking of men and of
beasts. To sweat and to feed are expressions that apply to the latter; to
perspire and to eat to the former.
Empty
The Mississippi river
flows, or discharges its water into the Gulf of Mexico, but it can not empty so
long as any water remains in the river.
Enjoyed poor health
"Gold that buys health can never be ill spent, Nor hours laid out
in harmless merriment." The
negative form of expression, "I have not enjoyed good health," is not
only correct, but is, at the same time, a polite way of modestly stating a
fact. To say "I have enjoyed poor health for the past year" is to
express a kind of enjoyment not generally appreciated. It is like being
agreeably disappointed.
Aberration of intellect
"He is afflicted
with a slight aberration of intellect." Simplicity would suggest, "He
is slightly insane."
Above, Foregoing
"Let me call your
attention to the above passage." The highest authority does not sanction
the use of above as an adjective. Say "the foregoing passage."
Allowed, Said
"He allowed this
was the best speech he had heard." This is a provincialism that should be
avoided. Use said, or declared, or admitted, according to the meaning.
Alternation
This word is sometimes
used in the sense of an unbroken series. It properly signifies a reciprocal
succession, as "The alternation of summer and winter produces an ever-changing
scene."
Alternative
Etymologically and by
general use, this word refers to a choice between two; as, "If this demand
is refused the alternative is war." But Gladstone is quoted as saying,
"My decided preference is for the fourth and last of these
alternatives."
Anniversary
From annus, a year,
means recurring every year. Centennial means once in a hundred years. What then
does centennial anniversary mean? Use centenary.
Learn, Teach
"I taught him
grammar," not "I learned him grammar." "He taught us
history."
Lease, Let, Rent, Hire
We may lease to or
from. "I leased the farm to my neighbor." "I leased this house
from Brown." We let to another; as, "I let my house to my
cousin." We may rent to or from another. We may hire from another,"
as, "I hired a servant;" "he hired a boat." With out and
reflexively we may hire to another; as," I hired out my horses;"
"he hired himself to the miller."
Like, As
Avoid the use of like
in the sense of as. "He thinks just as (not like) his father does."
That Anthony Trollope, Hugh Conway and other writers are chargeable with this
offence does not justify the use of like for as, but rather proves the need of
constant vigilance in order to avoid such errors.
Lit, Lighted, Alighted
"He lighted the
candle." "The crow alighted on the top of the tree." Avoid the
use of lit in such cases, and also that slang form, as, "I lit on a
beautiful passage in Browning," in the sense of met with.
Lend, Loan
"Will you lend me
your book," is better than "Will you loan me your book."
Near, Nearly
"James is not near
so good a scholar as his brother is." Use nearly.
Nasty, Nice
Nasty is a strong
adjective, and should be used only in reference to what is offensively filthy,
foul, or defiled. Such expressions as a nasty day, a nasty rain, mark a loose
and careless use of the word.
The word nice once
meant foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate. It has now come to mean exact, fine,
finished, exciting admiration on account of skill or exactness; as nice
proportions, nice workmanship, a nice distinction in philosophy. It is loosely
and colloquially used in application to what is pleasing, agreeable,
delightful, good.
A bright young lady was
once asked, "Don’t you think nice is a nasty word?" She replied,
"And do you think nasty is a nice word." The subject was abruptly
changed.
Nicely
"How do you feel
this morning?" "Nicely, thank you." The foregoing use of the
word is as incorrect as it is common. Use very well instead.
No good, No use
"How does that new
machine work?" "It’s no good." "Shall I try again?"
"No; it’s no use." The answers should have been, "It is of no
good, it is of no use."
O, Oh
While good usage is far
from uniform, many excellent authors employ O only in cases of direct address
and oh when strong and sudden emotion is to be expressed. O is always written
with a capital letter, and should be followed by the name of the person or
thing addressed, and the exclamation or interrogation point placed at the end
of the sentence; as, "O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy
victory?" "O the cold and cruel winter!"
Oh in the body of a
sentence may begin with a small letter, and is immediately followed by the
exclamation point; as, "Oh! how terrible was his fate!" "The sad
intelligence was gently given, but oh! the shock was almost unbearable."
Observe, Say
"He observed that
the orphan pines while the oppressor feeds." To observe is to notice
carefully, to attend closely to what one sees. In the above sentence said or
remarked should be used instead of observed.
Of any, Of all
"This is the
largest tree of any I have seen." The meaning clearly is, that of all the
trees I have seen this is the largest. Hence, of any should be changed to of
all.
Older, Elder
Elder and eldest are
terms applied chiefly to persons, generally in speaking of members of the same
family, while older and oldest are applied to persons of different families,
and also to things.
"His elder brother
died yesterday." "His eldest sister has gone to Italy on her wedding
trip." "Our oldest neighbor was born in 1825." "This oak is
older than that pine." The foregoing sentences illustrate the best usage
as applied to the comparatives older and elder and the superlatives oldest and
eldest.
When the direct
comparison is made the word older is used, followed by the conjunction than;
as, "My father is older than my mother." But when the comparison is
assumed the word elder should be employed; as, "My father is the elder of
my parents."
Only
Perhaps no other word
in the language is so often misplaced as the word only. The only general rule
is to place it as near as possible to the word which it modifies. "He only
lent me a dollar" means that he did not make me a present of the dollar,
but expects me to return it. "He lent me only a dollar" means that
the sum lent was neither greater nor less than one dollar. The former
expression is often used when the latter should be. "Only the man walked
to the post-office to-day." The woman did not walk with him.
"The man only
walked to the post-office to-day." He did not ride or drive.
"The man walked
only to the post-office to-day." He did not go so far as the store.
"The man walked to
the post-once only to-day." Yesterday he rode and the day before he drove.
Today is the only day that he walked.
George Eliot, in
Middlemarch, says: "I only know two gentlemen who sing at all well,"
and in another place, "I have only seen her once before." The word
only should be placed before two in the first sentence, and before once in the
second.
Onto
There is a growing
tendency to write the words on and to as one word. "Although nearly
drowned he yet had strength enough to climb onto the rock." The use of
upon or on is generally better. When neither of these can be used write on and
to as separate words.
Outstart
This word is sometimes
used when outset should be employed.
Over and Above
"He earned twenty
dollars over and above his expenses." Use more than or above.
Party, Person
"Is she the party
of whom you spoke?" "No; she is the person."
One man may be a party
to a contract or agreement. Several men may form a party. When no contract is
implied, one man or woman must be spoken of as a person, not as a party.
Patron, Customer
Unless there is a sense
of obligation or condescension, use the term customer and not patron. In like
manner, use custom instead of patronage.
Per
Per is a Latin
preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns. We should say per annum,
but not per year; per diem, and not per day; per capita, and not per head.
"He received a thousand dollars a year is shorter and better than "he
received a thousand dollars per year."
Perchance, Peradventure
These are poetic and
archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary prose.
Performers
"The entertainment
consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and the performers acquitted
themselves well." Readers, reciters, and singers are not performers. The
term is applied to the stage, and to those who play on musical instruments.
Even in the latter application, "he plays well on the piano," is
better than "he performs well on the piano."
Period, Point
Do not use period for a
point of time. Period implies extended time.
Nothing like
"James is nothing
like so successful as his brother" illustrates a colloquialism that should
be avoided. Use not nearly so, etc.
Notorious, Noted
"He was elected to
Congress, then Governor, and we now think of sending him to the United States
Senate. He is becoming quite notorious." The word notorious implies some
bad or doubtful quality or characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of
noted or famous.
Nowhere near so
"He trapped
nowhere near so many rabbits as his cousin." This vulgarism should be
avoided. Use not nearly.
Plead
The past tense of read
is read, but the past tense of plead is pleaded, not plead. "The prisoner
pleaded for mercy."
Plenty, Plentiful
"Money is plenty
this summer." Plenty is a noun and should not be used as an adjective.
Therefore "money is plentiful this summer." Shakespeare says,
"If reasons were as plenty as blackberries," etc., but words have
settled into more definite grooves since Shakespeare’s time. "This house
is plenty large enough." Neither is plenty an adverb. Say, "This
house is quite large enough," or, simply, large enough.
About, around
"She was pleased
with the conversation about her." Use "around her."
"She was pained by
the conversation about her." Use "concerning her."
Overlook, Oversee
This word means to look
down upon from a place that is over or above; as, "From the top of the
Washington monument you can readily overlook the city." But it also means
to look over and beyond an object in order to see a second object, thus missing
the view of the first object; hence, to refrain from bestowing notice upon, to
neglect. The confounding of these two ideas begets ambiguity, as "Brown’s
business was to overlook the workmen in the shop." His business was to
oversee or superintend them, and not to neglect or overlook them.
Revolting
To revolt is to rebel,
to renounce allegiance, but the participial form revolting also means
repugnant, loathsome. In the sentence, "A band of revolting Huns has just
passed down the street," we should be in doubt whether the speaker
referred to their acts against the government or to their appearance. The use
of the word rebellious in the former sense, and of disagreeable or disgusting,
or the stronger adjectives given above, for the latter meaning, would make the
sentence clear.
Unexampled
Such adjectives as
unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented, do not admit of comparison, hence such
expressions as the most unexampled bravery, the most unparalleled heroism,
etc., should be avoided.
Utter
This verb should be
distinguished from express or say. Utter carries with it the idea of articulate
expression, except in the sense of uttering false coins or forged notes.
As an adjective it is
defined by complete, perfect, absolute, etc., but it can be applied only to
what is unpleasant or unfavorable. "I enjoyed utter happiness" would
be an absurd expression, but "I was doomed to utter misery" illustrates
a proper use of the word.
Valuable, Valued
These words are not
synonymous; valuable means precious, costly, having value; valued refers to our
estimation of the worth. "He is one of our most valued contributors,"
not valuable, unless you are thinking of the value of his contributions and the
smallness of the compensation.
Very pleased
A few participles used
as adjectives may be directly modified by too or very; as, "I was very
tired," "He was too fatigued to go farther."
We sometimes hear the
expression, "I was very pleased," but the critics insist upon "I
was very much pleased," or "greatly pleased," or "very
greatly pleased."
Vicinity
Often too high-sounding
a word for the thought; neighborhood is less pretentious.
The old man
The use of such words
as dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old woman, when applied to parents,
not only indicates a lack of refinement, but shows positive disrespect. The
words pap, pappy, governor, etc., are also objectionable. After the first
lispings of childhood the words papa and mamma, properly accented, should be
insisted upon by parents, and at the age of twelve or fifteen the words father
and mother should be substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper
respect on the part of children.
Great big
"He gave me a
great big apple." This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. Use
large.
Argue, Augur
"The hollow
whistling of the wind among the trees argues an approaching storm." Use
augurs.
Barbaric, Barbarous
Barbaric refers to a
people; barbarous to their low state of life and their habits of cruelty.
Cut in half
A colloquialism in very
frequent use. "I will cut this melon in half and share it with you."
Say, cut in two, or cut in halves, or cut in two parts.
Hearty meal
"He ate a hearty
meal before starting on his journey." Hearty applies to the eater rather
than to the meal. "He ate heartily," etc.
Some better
"John has been
right sick, but is now some better." Somewhat, rather, or slightly may
take the place of some. The sentence may be otherwise improved. "John has
been quite ill, but is now somewhat better."
Through, Finished
Unless you have fallen
through a trap door and finished your career, do not say, "I am
through," when you mean "I have finished." The school-boy says,
"I am through with, that lesson," when he should say, "I have
finished that lesson." The farmer asks the man in his employ, "Are
you through with that field?" when he should have asked, "Have you
finished ploughing that field?" You ask your friend, "Are you
through, with Trilby?" when you should ask, "Have you finished
reading Trilby."
Winterish
Do not say summerish
and winterish, but summery, or summerlike, and wintry.
Wish
The word hope should be
employed instead of wish in such cases as, "I wish you may succeed in your
undertaking."
Right
This little word has
many meanings and is put to many uses. In the following senses it should be
avoided:
"Stand right
here." In most instances the briefer expression, "Stand here,"
is sufficient. If it is necessary to locate the place more definitely or to
emphasize the position, "Stand just here," or "Stand on this
very spot," may be better. "The train came to a standstill right
here." Better, "The train stopped just here."
"Do it right
away." This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. Immediately,
instantly, at once, without delay, are expressions that may safely be
substituted for right away.
"I heard of your
misfortune, and came to you right away." "John, post this letter for
me right off." Directly or immediately, in the place of right away and
right off, is better English.
"James is right
sick, and the doctor comes to see him right often." The use of right as an
intensive with adjectives and adverbs is very common in many quarters. Quite
ill or very ill is better than right sick, and often or frequently is better
than right often.
"We have a right
good crop of wheat this year." Use very instead of right.
"You have as good
a right to be punished as I have." The person addressed would gladly
relinquish his right. "You merit punishment as well as I," or
"You deserve to be punished," etc.
Shall, Will, Should,
Would
Few persons can claim
to be entirely free from slips of speech in the use of these auxiliaries.
Simply to express a future action or event, shall is used with the first person
and will with the second and third; as,
I shall read,We shall read,You will read,You will read,He will read,They
will read. But when I desire to
show determination on my part to do a certain thing, or when I exercise my
authority over another, or express promise, command, or threat, will is used in
the first person and shall in the second and third; as,
I will read,We will read,You shall read,You shall read,He shall
read,They shall read. Shall
primarily implies obligation; will implies intention or purpose. Will and would
should be used whenever the subject names the one whose will controls the
action; shall and should must be employed whenever the one named by the subject
is under the control of another.
The difference between
should and would is, in general, about the same as that between shall and will.
The foregoing
suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these auxiliaries, but there are some
special cases deserving attention.
Will, in the first
person, expresses assent or promise, as well as determination; as,
"I will read this
poem for you since you have requested it."
"I will meet you
to-morrow at the time appointed."
Will, in the second
person, may express a command; as,
"You will take the
places assigned you."
"You will report
immediately at my office."
Will is sometimes
employed to express a general fact, without conveying the idea of futurity; as,
"Accidents will happen." "Differences will arise."
Will is sometimes
incorrectly used instead of shall; as, "Will I go?" for "Shall I
go?" This fault is common in Scotland, and prevails to some extent in this
country.
Will is also used where
may would be more appropriate; as, "Be that as it will."
Shall you? Will you?
The distinction between
shall and will in the interrogative forms of the second person are not very
clearly defined. Many writers and speakers use them interchangeably. The answer
should have the same auxiliary as the question.
"Shall you go to
town to-morrow?" "I shall."
"Will you attend
to this matter promptly?" "I will."
Should, Would, Ought
Should is often used in
the sense of ought; as, "Mary should remain at home to-day and wait upon
her sick mother." Should and would are employed to express a conditional
assertion; as, "I should go to college, if I could secure the necessary
means." "He would have gone fishing, if his father had been willing."
Would is often used to
express a custom, a determination, or a wish; as, "He would sit all day
and moan." "Would to God we had died in the land of Egypt."
"He would go, and his parents could not prevent him."
Talented
Certain authors and
critics, including Coleridge, have objected strongly to the use of talented.
One writer argues that since there is no such verb as to talent, the formation
of such a participle as talented cannot be defended, and he further declares that
no good writer is known to use it, Webster (The International Dictionary)
states that, as a formative, talented is just as analogical and legitimate as
gifted, bigoted, moneyed, lauded, lilied, honeyed, and numerous other
adjectives having a participial form, but derived directly from nouns and not
from verbs.
We must therefore
conclude that the use of talented as an adjective is entirely legitimate.
Climb down
The critics generally
oppose the use of the expression climb down. When the verb is employed without
its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always understood. In
figurative language, as "Black vapors climb aloft, and cloud the
day," "The general climbed the heights of fame," the upward
direction is also understood.
But in a specific sense
climb is defined "to mount laboriously, especially by the use of hands and
feet." Here the manner seems to be as important as the direction. When the
same manner must be employed in descending, as a tree, a mast, or a steep,
rocky cliff, the general term descend fails to convey the meaning, and to use
slip, slide, drop, tumble, fall, would be incorrect. We are then left to choose
between the short and clear, but objectionable, expression climb down and some
long and cumbersome equivalent.
Mighty
Never use mighty in the
sense of very, or exceedingly. It is not only inappropriate but inelegant.
Of, From
"She had
consumption and died from the disease." Say, "died of the
disease."
On, Over, Upon
"Mary called upon
her friend." Say, "called on her friend." "The Senator
prevailed over his friends to support his bill." Say, "prevailed upon
his friends." "The candidate prevailed over his enemies."
Partake
This word means to take
a part of, to share with another. It is often incorrectly used for ate, as
"He partook sparingly of the food."
Powerful sight
This is a Westernism to
be avoided. It is used indiscriminately for a large number, a great quantity, a
vast amount, etc.
Apprehend, Comprehend
To apprehend is to take
into the mind; to comprehend is to understand fully what is already there. We
may apprehend many truths which we do not comprehend.
Introduce, Present
Present implies more
formality than introduce. We introduce one friend to another. An envoy is
presented to the King. Foreign ministers are presented to the President of the
United States.
Same as
"This is the same
story as I read last week." Use same that.
Section
"We raise finer
horses in our section." This is an Americanism that should be avoided.
Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the country or State, may be
substituted for section.
Seldom or ever
This incorrect
expression is sometimes used instead of seldom or never or seldom if ever.
"I have seldom if ever heard so eloquent an oration." "I have
seldom or never seen the man."
Sewage, Sewerage
These words have
distinct meanings. Sewage refers to the contents of the sewer; sewerage to the
system of sewers.
Sociable, Social
"He is one of the
most sociable men I have met. He is fond of society, and is very ready in
conversation." Sociable means companionable; social applies to the
relations of men in society; as social duties, social pleasures, social
interests.
Specialty, Speciality
These words are
interchangeable, but the former is the better word.
Requirement,
Requisition, Requisite
While these words have
something in common, each has a meaning peculiar to itself. Requirement means
that which is required as an essential condition, or as something necessary;
requisition, that which is required as of right, a demand or application made
as by authority; requisite, that which is required by the nature of things, or
by circumstances, that which cannot be dispensed with. "She understood the
nature of the child and of its requirements." "The officer made a
requisition for more troops." "This is as much a requisite as food
and clothing."
Sick, Ill
There is a growing
tendency to discriminate between sickness and illness, limiting the words sick
and sickness to some slight disturbance of the physical system, as nausea, and
applying the words ill and illness to protracted disease and disordered health.
Scholar, Pupil
Although these words
are often used synonymously and with good authority, it would be better to
limit the former to learned persons and to apply the latter to persons under
instruction.
Commenced to write
"I commenced to
write at a very early age." After the verb commence the best writers use
the verbal noun instead of the infinitive with to; as, "I commenced
writing at a very early age."
Beside, Besides
These words were
formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers of to-day make a
distinction. Beside means by the side of. Besides means in addition to. Besides
is sometimes incorrectly used for except; as, "No trees will grow here
besides the pine."
Bountiful, Plentiful
Bountiful applies to
the giver; plentiful to the things furnished. "The bountiful Giver of all
good furnishes a plentiful supply of all things needful for our comfort and
happiness." Do not say a bountiful repast, a bountiful harvest.
Attacked, Burst,
Drowned
The incorrect past
tense forms attackted, bursted, drownded, are sometimes heard; as, "The
cashier was attackted by three of the ruffians," "The cannon bursted
and killed the gunners,"" The fishermen were drownded off the
bar." Use attacked, burst, drowned.
All
This little word is
used in a great many ways, some of which are quite colloquial, and in some
cases provincial. When the grocer’s clerk has taken your order he is prompted
to say, "Is that all?" Or if he should say, "Is there anything
else that you wish?" you are likely to reply, "No; that is all."
Whether used in the question or in the reply, the word all should be avoided,
or else the expression should be expanded so as to make a clear sentence.
A friend calls to see
you, and, finding you alone when he expected to meet others with you, he says,
"Good morning; I see you are all alone." All is not a good equivalent
for quite or entirely, either of which words would be better than all. In
truth, the sentence is as clear and as strong and more concise without the use
of a modifier. "I see you are alone."
Inaugurate
To inaugurate means to
induct into office or to set in motion with formality and serious ceremony.
Pompous writers too often employ the word in referring to commonplace events. A
new business is established. A new hall or library is opened. A new pastor is
installed. A new order of procedure is adopted. In general, the word begin or
commence would be more appropriate than inaugurate.
Came across, Met with
"I came across the
passage quite unexpectedly." Better, "I chanced upon," or
"happened upon,," or "met with the passage quite
unexpectedly."
Expect
Few words are more
frequently incorrectly used than expect. "I expect you went to town
yesterday," "I expect you will hear from me to-morrow," "I
expect the train has arrived," represent some of the uses to which this
word is often put. Expect refers wholly to the future, and should not refer to
present or past events; as, "I expect you to write me from
Liverpool." "John expects to see his father to-morrow." Among
the expressions that can most readily and appropriately be substituted for
expect are suspect, suppose, think, believe, presume, daresay.
Over with
"After the supper
was over with the guests departed." Omit with.
Overflown
"The lowlands
along the river are overflown." Use overflowed. The perfect participle of
overflow is overflowed, not overflown.
Good piece
"I have come a
good piece to see you." Say "I have come a long distance to see
you."
Stand a chance
"He does not stand
any chance of an election." Say, "It is not probable that he will be
elected."
No more than I could
help
"As I was not in
sympathy with the cause, I gave no more than I could help." So accustomed
are we to hearing this awkward, blundering expression that we readily
understand the meaning it is intended to convey, and should be sorely puzzled
to interpret the correct form. Let us analyze it. I gave five dollars. That
much I could not help (giving). I gave no more. Hence, "I gave no more
than I could not help." This last form appears to be correct. By changing
the phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. "I gave no more than
I felt compelled to give." "I made my contribution as small as
possible." "My gift was limited to the measure of my sense of
obligation."
Above, More than,
Preceding
"It is above a
week since I heard from my brother." We may say "above the
earth," "above the housetops," but in the preceding sentence it
is better to say, "It is more than a week since I heard from my
brother."
"In the above
paragraph he quotes from Horace." Say, "In the preceding or foregoing
paragraph," etc. The awkwardness of the use of the word above becomes very
apparent when the line in which it occurs is found at the top of a page, and
the passage to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous
page.
Climax
The Greek word climax
means literally a ladder, and implies ascent, upward movement. The best authors
use it only in this sense, and not to denote the highest point.
Factor
This word, from the
Latin factor, a doer, an agent, signifies working, doing, effecting. Its
frequent use in the sense of source or part should be avoided.
"All are but
factors of one stupendous whole, Whose body Nature is, and God the soul."
Pope employs the better
word parts.
Hung, Hanged
Pictures, signs, bells,
and other inanimate objects are hung; men are hanged. While some writers ignore
this distinction, the best authorities observe it.
Healthy, Healthful
A lady wrote to a paper
asking, "Are plants in a sleeping-room unhealthy?" The answer came,
"Not necessarily; we have seen some very healthy plants growing in
sleeping-rooms."
Persons are healthy or
unhealthy. A plant or tree is healthy or unhealthy according as it possesses
vigor. Food, surroundings and conditions are healthful or unhealthful according
as they promote or destroy health.
Idea, Opinion
"Many persons
think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire; what is your
idea?" Say, "What is your opinion?"
Alone, Only
"An only
child" is one that has neither brother nor sister. "A child
alone" is one that is left to itself. "Virtue alone makes us
happy" means that virtue unaccompanied by any other advantages is
sufficient to make us happy. "Virtue only makes us happy" means that
nothing else can do it.
Grow, Raise, Rear
"We grow wheat,
corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm." "We raise wheat," etc.,
would be better. With the same propriety we might use sleep for lodge, and eat
for feed, or supply with food; as, "We can eat and sleep fifty persons at
one time."
The word raise is often
incorrectly used in the sense of rear; as, "She raised a family of nine
children." It is sometimes employed in the sense of increase, as,
"The landlord raised my rent." Increased would be better.
Has went
"He goes to
school," "He went to school yesterday," "He has gone to the
West." Avoid such ungrammatical forms as "He has went," "I
have saw."
Badly, Greatly
Badly is often
incorrectly used for greatly or very much, as, "I need it badly,"
"He was badly hurt."
"That fence wants
painting badly, I think I’ll do it myself," said the economical husband.
"Yes," said
his wife, "you had better do it yourself if you think it wants to be done
badly."
At you
"If you don’t stop
teasing me I will do something at you," meaning "I will punish
you." That form of expression is very common in some localities, and it is
even more inelegant than common. The use of the preposition to instead of at
would be a slight improvement, but the sentence should be entirely recast.
Haply, Happily
In the reading of the
Scriptures the word happily is sometimes used where the archaic word haply
should be employed. In like manner the word thoroughly is substituted for the
old form throughly. Both words should be pronounced as they are spelled.
Thanks
To say "I thank
you" requires but little more effort than to say "Thanks," and
it will be received as a more sincere token of thankfulness.
Got to
This inelegant
expression is often employed where must would serve the purpose better.
"This work has got to be done." Say, "Must be done."
Hangs on
"The cold weather
hangs on." Better, "The cold weather continues."
Under the Weather
"Are you
well?" "No; I have been quite under the weather." Substitute
sick or ill, for the colloquial expression under the weather.
Again, Against
Again is often erroneously
used for against; as, "He leaned again the tree for support." Say,
"He leaned against the tree for support."
Could, Can, Will
Could is often
incorrectly employed where can or will would be more appropriate.
"Could you lend me
a dollar this morning?" If the thought of the inquirer is, "Are you
willing to lend," etc., he should have used will instead of could; but if
his thought was, "Are you able to lend," or "Do you have a
dollar to spare this morning," he should have used can.
Bravery, Courage
Bravery is inborn;
courage is the result of reason and determination. The brave are often
reckless; the courageous are always cautious.
Hate
Avoid the use of hate
for dislike, and all other intensive words when the thought is more correctly
expressed by a milder word.
Pretty, Very
Pretty is often
incorrectly used in the sense of very or moderately, as "He was pretty
badly hurt," "He is a pretty good scholar," "She is pretty
wealthy," "Thomas is pretty ugly." So common is this
provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of such an expression as
the last would pass undiscovered.
Lot, Number
The use of lot for
number or many is a colloquialism that should be avoided. "He collected a
lot (large number) of books on the subject." "A lot of policemen were
gathered there" "I ate lots of oranges while I was in Florida."
Lead a dance
"He led his companion
a fine dance." This expression, as generally used, is ironical, and
implies that the leader conducts those who are led through experiences
unfamiliar to them and usually to their disadvantage. To lead astray, to
deceive, to corrupt the morals of, may be substituted for the foregoing
inelegant expression.
Try and
"Have you been to
the country this summer?" "No; but I will try and go next
week.". The second speaker intends to convey the idea that it is his
purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent, but his going is still a matter of
uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly interpreted means that he
not only will try, but that he positively will go.
"Try and finish
that work to-day." Here the purpose is not to command that the work shall be
finished, but that the trial shall be made. As the sentence stands two distinct
commands are given, first, that the trial shall be made, and, second, that the
work must be completed. The sentence should read, "Try to finish that work
to-day."
Use to instead of and
in such expressions as "Try and make it convenient to come,"
"Try and do your work properly," "Try and think of your
lessons," "Try and go and see our sick neighbor."
Whatever may be said
against employing contractions in dignified discourse, their use in colloquial
speech is too firmly established to justify our censure. But, in their use, as,
indeed, in the use of all words, proper discrimination must be shown.
Just why haven’t, hasn’t,
doesn’t, isn’t, wasn’t, are regarded as being in good repute, and ain’t, weren’t,
mightn’t, oughtn’t, are regarded with less favor, and why shalln’t, willn’t are
absolutely excluded, it would be difficult to explain.
Use determines the law
of language, whether for single words, grammatical forms, or grammatical
constructions. Wherever a people, by common consent, employ a particular word
to mean a certain thing, that word becomes an inherent part of the language of
that people, whether it has any basis in etymology or not. We must not wrest
this law to our own convenience, however, by assuming that such words and
phrases as are introduced and employed by the illiterate, or even by the
educated, within a circumscribed territory, are, therefore, to be regarded as
reputable words. The
sanction of all classes, the educated as well as the uneducated, throughout the
entire country in which the language is spoken, is necessary and preliminary to
the proper introduction of a new word into the language.
Ain’t
This word is a
contraction of am not or are not, and can, therefore, be used only with the
singular pronouns I and you, and with the plural pronouns we, you, and they,
and with nouns in the plural.
I am not pleased. I ain’t
pleased.
You are not kind. You
ain’t kind.
They are not gentlemen.
They ain’t gentlemen.
These sentences will
serve to illustrate the proper use of ain’t, if it is ever proper to use such
an inelegant word as that. "James ain’t a good student," "Mary
ain’t a skillful musician," or "This orange ain’t sweet," are
expressions frequently heard, yet those who use them would be shocked to hear
the same expressions with the proper equivalent am not or are not substituted
for the misleading ain’t.
The expression ain’t is
compounded of the verb am or are and the adverb not, and by the contraction the
three vocal impulses I-am-not, or you-are-not, or they-are-not, are reduced to
two. By compounding the pronoun with the verb and preserving the full adverb,
as in "I’m
not," "You’re not," "They’re not," we also reduce the
three vocal impulses to two, thus securing as short a contraction in sound and
one that is as fully adapted to colloquial speech, and that is, at the same
time, in much better taste.
The old form for ain’t
was an’t, but this has now become obsolete. It will be a blessing to the
English-speaking people when the descendant shall sleep with his father.
Are not is sometimes
contracted into aren’t, but this form has not found much favor.
Can’t and Couldn’t
As cannot and could not
may be used with pronouns of the first, second, or third person, in either
number, and with nouns in both numbers, no error is likely to follow the use of
their contracted forms.
Why cannot is properly
written as one word, and could not requires two, is not founded upon any principle
of philosophy. The concurrent sanction of all classes in all parts of the
English-speaking world establishes it as law.
Observe that the a in
the verb can’t is broader in sound than the short a in the noun cant.
Don’t and Didn’t
Don’t is a contraction
of do not. It is in very general use and in good repute. It may be employed
wherever the expanded expression do not could be applied, and only there.
"One swallow don’t
make a spring" is equivalent to saying, "One swallow do not make a
spring." We may say "I don’t," "You don’t," "We
don’t," "They don’t," "The men (or birds, or trees) don’t,"
but we must use doesn’t with he, or she, or it, or the man, the grove, the
cloud, etc.
Unlike the verb do, its
past tense form did undergoes no change in conjugation, hence the contraction
didn’t is also uniform.
Haven’t, Hasn’t, and
Hadn’t
The verb have, like the
verb do, has a distinct form for the third person singular. The same change
affects the contraction. I haven’t, you haven’t, he hasn’t. The construction
hadn’t undergoes no change.
Haint, Taint
Haint is used
indiscriminately for haven’t and hasn’t. Taint is used for tisn’t. Their use is
indicative of an entire lack of culture.
Isn’t
No one need hesitate to
use this word. It is smooth in utterance and contributes much to the freedom
and ease of social intercourse. Its equivalent is too stately for colloquial
forms of speech, and is often suggestive of pedantry. Compare "Isn’t he an
eloquent speaker?" "Isn’t this a beautiful flower?" with
"Is not he an eloquent speaker?" "Is this not a beautiful
flower?"
Wasn’t
Although not so elegant
as the present tense form isn’t, yet the contraction wasn’t is in excellent
repute. It is properly used only in the first and third persons singular. No one
who makes any pretension to culture would be guilty of saying" You was my
neighbor, but you wasn’t my friend," "We was engaged in trade, and
they wasn’t of any use to us." Say we were or were not, but never wasn’t
or wa’nt.
Weren’t
The forms aren’t, and
weren’t do not have the sanction of the best speakers and writers, and should
be used sparingly, if at all.
Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t
These are frequently
used in speech, but are not so common in writing.
Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t,
and Oughtn’t
Mustn’t may be used in
light conversation, but not in writing. The others should be avoided in speech
and writing.
I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s,
It’s, We’re, They’re
The contractions formed
by compounding the pronoun with the verb are very common, and tend to preserve
conversation from becoming stiff and formal. Nouns in the singular are
sometimes compounded in like manner; as, "John’s going by the early
train," "Mary’s caught a bird." Not many verbs beside is and has
are thus compounded, and the practice should be discouraged.
Mayst, Mightst
Although mayst, canst,
mightst, couldst, wouldst, and shouldst are contracted forms, the apostrophe is
not employed to indicate the contraction.
Daren’t, Dursent
Dare not is sometimes
contracted to daren’t and durst not to dursent, but the practice should not be
encouraged.
Let’s
While verbs are often
contracted when compounded with pronouns, as it’s, he’s, I’m, you’re, etc., the
pronoun must not be contracted to form a combination with the verb. It may be a
poor rule, but it will not work both ways. Let’s should therefore be let us.
Some time ago a shoe
merchant called upon the writer to know how to arrange the points in the
wording of a new sign that he was preparing to place over his door. He made a
specialty of shoes for men and boys. He presented a paper containing the lines:
Men’s and Boy’s Shoes.
Mens’ and Boys’ Shoes.
He was politely
informed that both were incorrect; that the two words form their plurals
differently, and that the possessive case is, therefore, formed in a different
manner. The plural of man is men,; the plural of boy is boys. The possessive of
man is man’s; of men is men’s. The possessive of boy is boy’s; of boys is boys’.
In the latter case we are obliged to place the apostrophe after the s in order
to distinguish the possessive plural from the possessive singular. All nouns
that form their plurals by adding s to the singular, form their possessive case
as the word boy does. The sign should therefore read:
Men’s and Boys’ Shoes.
Singular Nouns
All nouns in the
singular form their possessive case by adding the apostrophe and the letter s;
as, child’s, girl’s, woman’s, bird’s, brother’s, sister’s, judge’s, sailor’s.
When the noun ends in
s, sh, ch, ce, se, or x, the additional s makes another syllable in pronouncing
the word; as, James’s, Charles’s, witness’s, duchess’s, countess’s, Rush’s,
March’s, prince’s, horse’s, fox’s. In poetry the terminal s is sometimes
omitted for the sake of the meter.
While writers differ,
the tendency in modern usage is toward the additional s in such expressions as
Mrs. Hemans’s Poems, Junius’s Letters, Knowles’s "Virginius," Knox’s
Sermons, Brooks’s Arithmetics, Rogers’s Essays.
By long-established
usage such expressions as for conscience’ sake, for righteousness’ sake, for
qoodness’ sake, for Jesus’ sake, have become idioms. Some authorities justify
the omission of the possessive s when the next word begins with s, as in
Archimedes’ screw, Achilles’ sword.
Plural Nouns
Most nouns form their
plurals by adding s or es to the singular. These plurals form their possessive
by adding the apostrophe; as, horses’, countesses’, foxes’, churches’, princes’.
Nouns whose plurals are formed otherwise than by adding s or es, form their
possessive case by adding the apostrophe and s, just as nouns in the singular
do; as, men’s, women’s, children’s, seraphim’s.
Pronouns
Sometimes the mistake
is made of using the apostrophe with the possessive personal pronouns; as, her’s,
our’s, it’s. The personal and relative pronouns do not require the apostrophe,
but the indefinite pronouns one and other form their possessives in the same
manner as nouns; as, "each other’s eyes," "a hundred others’
woes."
Double Possessives
"John and Mary’s
sled," means one sled belonging jointly to John and Mary. "John’s and
Mary’s sleds" means that one sled belongs to John, the other to Mary.
"Men, women, and
children’s shoes for sale here." When several possessives connected by and
refer to the same noun, the sign of the possessive is applied to the last one
only.
When a disjunctive word
or words are used, the sign must be annexed to each word; as, "These are
Charles’s or James’s books."
Possessive of Nouns in
Apposition
When two nouns are in
apposition, or constitute a title, the possessive sign is affixed to the last,
as "For David my servant’s sake," "Give me here John the Baptist’s
head in a charger," "The Prince of Wales’s yacht,"
"Frederick the Great’s kindness."
After "of"
By a peculiarity of idiom
the possessive sign is used with a noun in the objective; as, "This is a
story of Lincoln’s," "That is a letter of the President’s,"
"A patient of Dr. Butler’s," "A pupil of Professor Ludlam’s."
In ordinary prose the
custom of the best writers is to limit the use of the possessive chiefly to
persons and personified objects; to time expressions, as, an hour’s delay, a
moment’s thought; and to such idioms as for brevity’s sake.
Avoid such expressions
as, "America’s champion baseball player," "Chicago’s best
five-cent cigar," "Lake Michigan’s swiftest steamer."
Somebody else’s
The question whether we
should say "This is somebody’s else pencil," or "This is
somebody else’s pencil," has been warmly argued by the grammarians, the
newspapers, and the schools. If some leading journal or magazine were to write
somebody else as one word, others would, doubtless, follow, and the question of
the possessive would settle itself. The word notwithstanding is composed of
three separate words, which are no more closely united in thought than are the
three words some, body, and else. Two of the latter are already united, and the
close mental union of the third with the first and second would justify the
innovation.
But the words are at
present disunited. A majority of the best writers still conform to the old
custom of placing the possessive with else.
"People were so
ridiculous with their illusions, carrying their fool’s caps unawares, thinking
their own lies opaque, while everybody else’s were transparent."--George
Eliot.
Some make a distinction
by placing the possessive with else when the noun follows, and with somebody
when the noun precedes; as, "This is somebody else’s pencil," and
"This pencil is somebody’s else." This distinction is not generally
followed.
The correct use of the
pronouns, personal and relative, involves a degree of skill which many speakers
and writers fail to possess. The choice of the appropriate pronoun, the
agreement with its antecedent, the proper case form, are matters that require
careful consideration.
Case Forms
Following am, are, is,
was, and other forms of the verb to be, the pronoun must be in the nominative
case.
"Are you the
person that called?" "Yes; I am him." The answer should have
been, "I am he."
"I saw a man
trespassing on my grounds, and I think you are him." Say, "You are
he."
"It is only me;
don’t be afraid." "It is only I" is the correct form.
"It was him that
struck you, not me." Change him, to he, and me to I.
"It might have
been him that sent you the present." Use he, not him.
"It is him whom
you said it was." The sentence should be, "It is he who you said it
was."
"That was but a
picture of him and not him himself." Say, "and not he himself."
After Verbs and
Prepositions
When a pronoun depends
upon a verb or a preposition the pronoun must be in the objective case.
"Between you and I,
that picture is very faulty." The pronouns you and I depend upon the
preposition between. The pronoun I should therefore be in the objective case,
and the sentence should be, "Between you and me, that picture is very
faulty."
"The president of
the meeting appointed you and I upon the committee." As both pronouns are
objects of the transitive verb appointed, both should be in the objective case.
You having the same form in the objective as in the nominative is, therefore,
correct, but I should be changed to me.
"The teacher
selected he and I to represent the class." The pronouns are the objects of
the verb selected, and should be changed to him and me. The infinitive to
represent, like other infinitives, can have no subject, and, therefore, does
not control the case of the pronouns.
Interrogatives
When a question is
asked, the subject is usually placed after the verb, or between the auxiliary
and the verb; as, "Did you go to town?" "Will he sail
to-day?" "Has your uncle arrived?" "Hearest thou thy mother’s
call?"
The object or attribute
of the verb, when a pronoun, is often used to introduce the sentence. "Who
should I see coming toward me but my old friend?" Who should be whom, for
it is the object, and not the subject, of the verb should see.
"Whom do you think
that tall gentleman is?" Whom should be who, as it is the attribute of the
verb is.
"Who do you take
me for?" Being the object of the preposition for, who should be whom.
After "To be"
"I knew it was
him" is incorrect, because the word which forms the pronoun attribute of
the verb was must be in the nominative case. But the infinitive of the neuter
verb requires the objective case. Therefore we must say, "I knew it to be
him," not "I knew it to be he." The latter faulty form is very
frequently employed.
"Who did you
suppose it to be?" Incorrect. Say, "whom."
"Whom did you
suppose it was?" Incorrect. Say, "who."
After the Imperative
The imperative mood
requires the objective case after it. "Let you and I try it." It
should be, "Let you and me try it."
"Let he who made
thee answer that."--Byron. He should have said, "Let him who made
thee answer that."
"Let him be whom,
he may." Him is the objective after the imperative let, and is correct.
Whom should be who, as pronoun attribute of the verb may be. "Who he may
be, I cannot tell," is correct. "Who he may be, let him be," is
also correct. By transposing, and by omitting be, we have "Let him be who
he may."
"Let the sea roar,
and the fullness thereof; the world, and they that dwell therein." When,
as in this case, the verb is widely separated from its object, we need to give
particular care to the case of the pronoun which constitutes the object. They
should be them.
Silent Predicate
"Who will go with
us to the woods? Me." The complete answer would be," Me will go with
you to the woods," the faultiness of which is evident. The answer should
be "I."
After "Than"
and "As"
The objective pronoun
is often incorrectly used for the nominative after than or as. "He can
swim better than me." The complete sentence would be, "He can swim
better than I can swim." The omission of the verb can swim affords no reason
for changing I to me.
"He is no better
than me." Say, "He is no better than I," meaning, I am.
"They are common
people, such as you and me." Such people "as you and I are." The
pronoun should be I, not me.
Parenthetical
Expressions
When a parenthetical
expression comes between a pronoun in the nominative case and its verb, the
objective is often incorrectly used instead of the nominative.
"She sang for the
benefit of those whom she thought might be interested." The explanatory
parenthesis "she thought" comes between the pronominal subject and
its verb might be interested. Omit the explanatory clause and the case of the
pronoun becomes clear. "She sang for the benefit of those who might be
interested."
Agreement with
Antecedent
A pronoun must agree
with its antecedent in gender, person, and number. The gender and person
usually take care of themselves, but the number of pronouns is a serious
obstacle to correct speech.
"One tells the
quality of their minds when they try to talk well"--George Eliot, in
Middlemarch. The pronouns their and they should be singular.
"Everybody has
something to say which they think is worthy of being heard." Everybody
refers to persons singly, and not collectively. They think should be he thinks,
he being the proper pronoun to employ when the gender is not indicated.
"Every nation has
laws and customs of their own." The use of the word every necessitates a
pronoun in the singular, hence their should be its.
"Every one is
accountable for their own acts." Use his.
"She studied his
countenance like an inscription, and deciphered each rapt expression that
crossed it, and stored them in her memory." Change them to it.
"Each of them, in
their turn, received the reward to which they were entitled." This should
be "Each of them in his turn received the reward to which he was
entitled."
No and not, like each
and every, when they qualify a plural antecedent, or one consisting of two or
more nouns, require a pronoun in the singular.
"No policeman, no
employee, no citizen dared to lift their hand" Say, his hand.
Or, Nor
When the antecedent
consists of two or more nouns separated by or, nor, as well as, or any other
disjunctive, the pronoun must be singular.
"Neither spelling
nor parsing receive the attention they once received." Verb and pronoun
should be singular, receives and it.
Collective Noun
When a noun of
multitude or collective noun is the antecedent, the pronoun, like the verb,
must be plural or singular according to the sense intended to be conveyed.
Ambiguity
Never leave the
antecedent of your pronoun in doubt.
"John tried to see
his father in the crowd, but could not, because he was so short." If the
father was short, repeat the noun and omit the pronoun, as "John tried to
see his father in the crowd but could not because his father was so
short." If John was short, recast the sentence: "John, being short of
stature, tried in vain to see his father in the crowd."
"He said to his
friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home."
This sentence is susceptible of four interpretations. We shall omit the first
part of the sentence in the last three interpretations, as it is the same in
all. "He said to his friend: ’If I do not feel better soon, I think I had
better go home.’" "If I do not feel better soon, I think you had
better go home." "If you do not feel better soon, I think I had
better go home." "If you do not feel better soon, I think you had
better go home."
"The lad cannot
leave his father; for, if he should leave him, he would die." To avoid
ambiguity substitute his father for the italicised pronouns. The repetition is
not pleasant, but it is the lesser of two evils.
Needless Pronouns
Avoid all pronouns and
other words that are not essential to the meaning.
"The father he
died, the mother she soon followed after, and the children they were all taken
down sick."
"Let every one
turn from his or her evil ways." Unless there is special reason for
emphasizing the feminine pronoun, avoid the awkward expression his or her. The
pronoun his includes the other.
Mixed Pronouns
Do not use two styles
of the pronoun in the same Sentence. "Enter thou into the joy of your
Lord." "Love thyself last, and others will love you."
Them, Those
It should not be
necessary to caution the reader against the use of them for those.
"Fetch me them
books." "Did you see them, fat oxen?" "Them’s good; I’ll
take another dish."
Which, Who
"Those which say
so are mistaken." Who is applied to persons; which, to the lower animals
and to inanimate things.
"He has some
friends which I know." Whom, the objective case form of the pronoun who,
should here be used.
"The dog, who was
called Rover, went mad." Use which.
What, That
That is applied to
persons, animals, and things. What is applied to things. The antecedent of what
should not be expressed. What is both antecedent and relative.
"All what he saw
he described." Say, "What he saw," or "All that he
saw," etc.
Uniform Relatives
When several relative
clauses relate to the same antecedent, they should have the same relative
pronoun.
"It was Joseph
that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of the land, and which saved his
father and brothers from famine." Change that and which to who.
Choice of Relatives
Since who and that are
both applied to persons, and which and that are both applied to animals and
things, it often becomes a serious question which relative we shall employ.
Much has been written upon the subject, but the critics still differ in theory
and in practice. The following is probably as simple a statement of the general
rule as can be found:
If the relative clause
is of such a nature that it could be introduced by and he, and she, and it, and
they, etc., the relative who (for persons) and which (for animals or things)
should be used in preference to the relative that.
"Man that is born
of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble." The language of the Bible
and of Shakespeare must stand, although the forms of expression differ greatly
from those employed at the present day. According to modern standards, that
should be who.
"The earth is
enveloped by an ocean of air that is a compound of oxygen and nitrogen!"
Change that to which.
The relative that
should be used in preference to who or which:
(1) When the antecedent
names both persons and things;
(2) When it would
prevent ambiguity;
(3) After the words
same, very, all;
(4) After the
interrogative pronoun who;
(5) After adjectives
expressing quality in the highest degree.
"The wisest men
who ever lived made mistakes." Use that. See (5).
"He lived near a
stagnant pool which was a nuisance." Use that. See (2).
"All who knew him
loved him." Say that. See (3).
"Who who saw him
did not pity him." See (4).
"He spake of the
men and things which he had seen." See (1).
"These are my
pupils which I have brought to see you." Use whom, as which is not applied
to persons.
"This is the
window whose panes were broken by the rude boys." Use "the panes of
which." Because of its convenience, perhaps, the faulty whose is very
largely used; as, "The eagle whose wings," "The house whose
gables," "The ocean whose waves," "The vessel whose
sails," "The play whose chief merit," "Music whose chief
attraction," etc.
Which and Who after
"And"
Which and who cannot
follow and unless there has been a preceding which or who in the same sentence
and in the same construction.
"The more
important rules, definitions and observations, and which are therefore the most
proper to be committed to memory, are printed with a large type."--Murray’s
Grammar. In Moore’s Bad English the sentence is corrected thus: "The
rules, definitions, and observations which are the more important, and which
are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed in larger
type."
Adverbs for Relative
Pronouns
Adverbs are often
employed where a preposition with a relative pronoun would better express the
sense.
"There is no
method known how his safety may be assured." Use by which instead of how.
"He wrote me a
letter where he repeated his instructions." "Letter in which he
repeated," etc.
"And curse the
country where their fathers dwelt." "In which their fathers
dwelt."
"This is a case
where large interests are involved." The preposition and relative will
better express the meaning; as, "This is a case in which large interests
are involved."
Misplaced Relative
The relative should be
so placed as to prevent ambiguity, and as near as possible to its antecedent.
"Mr. Smith needs a
surgeon, who has broken his arm." Say, "Mr. Smith, who has
broken," etc.
"The figs were in
small wooden boxes, which we ate." "The figs which we ate," etc.
"He needs no boots
that cannot walk." "He that cannot walk," etc.
Omitted Relatives
The relative pronoun is
often omitted when it should be expressed.
"The next
falsehood he told was the worst of all." Say, "The next falsehood
that he told," etc.
"It is little we
know of the divine perfections." Say, "Little that we know."
"Almost all the
irregularities in the construction of any language have arisen from the
ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the sentence and made
it regular."--Murray’s Grammar. The sentence should end with "and
which made it regular."
The one, the other
When the one and the
other refer to things previously mentioned, the one applies to the first
mentioned, and the other to the last mentioned.
"Homer was a
genius, Virgil an artist: in the one we most admire the man; in the other, the
work."
Many persons of
moderate education regard nouns that do not end with s or es as singular. Even
the gifted pen of Addison once slipped so far as to betray him into using the
word seraphim, in the singular.
Cherubim, Seraphim
The words cherub and seraph,
are singular. Cherub, as applied to a little child, takes the English plural,
cherubs. As applied to an order of angels, it takes the Hebrew plural,
cherubim. The singular, seraph, has an English plural, seraphs, as well as the
Hebrew plural, seraphs. The double plurals, cherubims and seraphims, although
found in the King James version of the Bible, are regarded as faulty in modern
writing, and should be avoided.
News
Although plural in
form, the word news is singular in meaning; as, "The news from Europe this
morning is quite interesting."
Acoustics
Names of sciences
ending in ics, are generally regarded as singular. "Acoustics is a very
considerable branch of physics." Do not say, "The acoustics of this
hall are good," but "The acoustic properties of this hall are
good."
Dialectics, dynamics,
economics, mathematics, ethics, politics, tactics, when used as substantives,
require a verb in the singular.
Analysis
Many words like
analysis, crisis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, oasis, parenthesis, synopsis,
form their plurals by changing the termination is into es; as, analyses,
crises, etc. The word iris takes the English plural irises; Latin plural is
irides. Chrysalis has only the Latin plural, chrysalides; but chrysalid, which
means the same as chrysalis, takes the English plural, chrysalids.
Terminus
Terminus, radius,
alumnus, and some other words ending in us, form their plurals by changing the
termination us into i; as termini, radii, etc.
Many words ending in us
that formerly were written with only the Latin plural, are now given an English
plural also; as, focuses, foci; cactuses, cacti; sarcophaguses, sarcophagi;
convolvuluses, convolvuli ; funguses, fungi; nucleuses, nuclei. Isthmus,
prospectus, rebus, take only the English plural.
Apparatus has no
plural. Avoid apparatuses.
The plural of genius,
as applied to a man of unusual vigor of mind, is geniuses. When applied to a
good or bad spirit, the plural is genii.
Formula
Formulas, larvas,
stigmas, are regular English plurals; formulae, larvae, and stigmata are the
classical plurals. Nebulae and alumnae are the proper plurals, the latter being
the feminine noun corresponding to the masculine plural alumni.
Datum, Phenomenon
Datum, erratum,
candelabrum, and memorandum form their plurals by changing um to a; as, data,
errata, etc. The last two also take the English plurals, memorandums,
candelabrums.
The plural of
phenomenon and criterion are phenomena, criteria, although criterions is
sometimes employed.
The plural forms, data,
strata, and phenomena, are so much more frequently used than their singular
forms, datum, stratum, and phenomenon, that some writers have slipped into the
habit of using the plurals with a singular meaning; as, "The aurora
borealis is a very strange phenomena." "Our data is insufficient to
establish a theory." "The strata is broken and irregular."
Mussulmans
While most words ending
in man become plural by changing this termination to men, as gentlemen,
noblemen, clergymen, statesmen, the following simply add s: dragomans,
Mussulmans, Ottomnans, talismans "A dozen dragomans offered their services
as guides and interpreters." "A band of Mussulmans cut off our
retreat." "Those fierce Ottomans proved to be very revengeful." "He
purchased five finely upholstered ottomans for his drawing-room."
Heroes, Cantos
Most nouns ending in o
add es to form the plural; as, heroes, negroes, potatoes, stuccoes,
manifestoes, mosquitoes. Words ending in io or yo add s; as, folios, nuncios,
olios, ratios, embryos.
The following words,
being less frequently used, often puzzle us to know whether to add s or es to
form the plural: armadillos, cantos, cuckoos, halos, juntos, octavos, provisos,
salvos, solos, twos, tyros, virtuosos.
Alms, Odds, Riches
Many nouns that end in
s have a plural appearance, and we are often perplexed to know whether to use
this or these, and whether to employ a singular or a plural verb when the noun
is used as a substantive.
Amends is singular.
Assets, dregs, eaves, bees, pincers, riches, scissors, sheers, tongs, vitals,
are plural. When we say a pair of pincers, or scissors, or shears, or tongs,
the verb should be singular. Tidings, in Shakespeare’s time, was used
indiscriminately with a singular or plural verb, but is now generally regarded
as plural.
Alms and headquarters
are usually made plural, but are occasionally found with a singular verb. Pains
is usually singular. Means, odds, and species are singular or plural, according
to the meaning.
"By this means he
accomplished his purpose." "What other means is left to us?"
"Your means are very slender, and your waste is great."
Proper Names
These are usually
pluralized by adding s; as, the Stuarts, the Caesars, the Beechers, the
Brownings.
Titles with Proper
Names
Shall we say the Miss
Browns, the Misses Brown, or the Misses Browns? Great diversity of opinion
prevails. Gould Brown says: "The name and not the title is varied to form
the plural; as, the Miss Howards, the two Mr. Clarks."
Alexander Bain, LL. D.,
says: "We may say the Misses Brown, or the Miss Browns, or even the Misses
Browns."
The chief objection to
the last two forms is found when the proper name ends with s, as when we say,
the Miss Brookses, the Miss Joneses, the Miss Pottses, the Miss Blisses. The
form the Misses Brooks is objected to by some on the ground that it sounds
affected. On the whole the rule given by Gould Brown is the best, and is quite
generally observed.
Knight Templar
Both words are made
plural, Knights Templars, a very unusual way of forming the plural.
Plural Compounds
The plural sign of a
compound word is affixed to the principal part of the word, to the part that
conveys the predominant idea; as, fathers-in-law, man-servants, outpourings,
ingatherings. In such words as handfuls, cupfuls, mouthfuls, the plural ending
is added to the subordinate part because the ideas are so closely associated as
to blend into one.
Beaus, Beaux
Some words ending in
eau have only the English plurals, as bureaus, portmanteaus; others take both
the English and the French plurals, as beaus, beaux; flambeaus, flambeaux;
plateaus, plateaux; and still others take only the foreign plural; as, bateaux,
chateaux, tableaux.
Pair, Couple, Brace
After numerals, the
singular form of such words as these is generally employed; as, five pair of
gloves, eight couple of dancers, three brace of pigeons, five dozen of eggs,
four score years, twenty sail of ships, fifty head of cattle, six hundred of
these men, two thousand of these cattle, etc.
After such indefinite
adjectives as few, many, several, some of the above words take the plural form;
as, several hundreds, many thousands.
Index, Appendix
Indexes of books;
indices, if applied to mathematical signs in algebra. Appendixes or appendices.
Fish, Fly
The plural of fish is
fishes when considered individually, and fish when considered collectively.
"My three pet fishes feed out of my hand." "Six barrels of fish
were landed from the schooner."
Most words ending in y
change this termination into ies, as duties, cities, etc. The plural of fly,
the insect, is formed in the usual manner, but fly, a light carriage, adds s;
as, "Six flys carried the guests to their homes."
Animalcule
The plural of this word
is animalcules. There is no plural animalculae. The plural of the Latin
animalculum is animalcula.
Bandit
This word has two
plural forms, bandits and banditti.
Brother
Plural brothers, when
referring to members of the same family; brethren, when applied to members of
the same church or society.
Die
Plural dies, when the
stamp with which seals are impressed is meant; dice, the cubes used in playing
backgammon.
Herring
The plural is herrings,
but shad, trout, bass, pike, pickerel, grayling, have no plural form. "I
caught three bass and seven fine pickerel this morning."
Grouse
The names of game
birds, as grouse, quail, snipe, woodcock, usually take no plural form.
Pea
Considered individually
the plural is peas; when referring to the crop the proper form is pease.
Penny
"He gave me twelve
bright new pennies," referring to the individual coins. "I paid him
twelve pence," meaning a shilling.
Wharf
Plural, generally
wharves in America; wharfs in England.
The clearness of the
sentence is often dependent upon the proper placing of the adverb. No absolute
rule can be laid down, but it should generally be placed before the word it
qualifies. It is sometimes necessary to place it after the verb, and occasionally
between the auxiliary and the verb, but it should never come between to and the
infinitive.
"I have thought of
marrying often." As the adverb relates to the thinking, and not to the
marrying, the sentence should read, "I have often thought of marrying."
"We have often
occasion to speak of health." This should be, "We often have
occasion," etc,
"It remains then
undecided whether we shall go to Newport or Saratoga." Place undecided
before then.
Adjective or Adverb?
There is often a doubt
in the mind of the speaker whether to use the adjective or the adverb, and too
frequently he reaches a wrong decision. When the limiting word expresses a
quality or state of the subject or of the object of a verb, the adjective must
be employed; but if the manner of the action is to be expressed, the adverb
must be used. The verbs be, seem, look, taste, smell, and feel furnish many
stumbling-blocks.
"This rose smells
sweetly." As the property or quality of the rose is here referred to, and
not the manner of smelling, the adjective sweet should be employed, and not the
adverb sweetly.
"Thomas feels
quite badly about it." Here, again, it is the condition of Thomas’s mind,
and not the manner of feeling, that is to be expressed; hence, badly should be
bad or uncomfortable.
"Didn’t she look
beautifully upon the occasion of her wedding?" No; she looked beautiful.
"The sun shines
brightly." Bright is the better word.
"The child looks
cold," refers to the condition of the child. "The lady looked coldly
upon her suitor," refers to the manner of looking.
"The boy feels
warm" is correct. "The boy feels warmly the rebuke of his
teacher" is equally correct.
While license is
granted to the poets to use the adjective for the adverb, as in the line
"They fall
successive and successive rise,"
in prose the one must
never be substituted for the other.
"Agreeably to my
promise, I now write," not "Agreeable to my promise."
"An awful solemn
funeral," should be "An awfully solemn funeral."
"He acts bolder
than was expected," should be "He acts more boldly."
"Helen has been
awful sick, but she is now considerable better." "Helen has been very
ill, but she is now considerably better."
Do not use coarser for
more coarsely, finer for more finely, harsher for more harshly, conformable for
conformably, decided for decidedly, distinct for distinctly, fearful for
fearfully, fluent for fluently.
Do not say "This
melon is uncommon good," but "This melon is uncommonly good."
The word ill is both an
adjective and an adverb. Do not say "He can illy afford to live in such a
house," but "He can ill afford."
"That was a
dreadful solemn sermon." To say "That was a dreadfully solemn sermon"
would more grammatically express what the speaker intended, but very or
exceedingly would better express the meaning.
Such, So
Such is often
improperly used for the adverb so.
"In such a mild
and healthful climate." This should be, "In so mild and healthful a
climate."
"With all due
deference to such a high authority on such a very important matter."
Change to, "With all due deference to so high an authority on so very
important a matter."
Good, Well
Many intelligent
persons carelessly use the adjective good in the sense of the adverb well; as,
"I feel good to-day." "Did you sleep good last night?"
"Does this coat look good enough to wear on the street?" "I can
do it as good as he can." The frequent indulgence in such errors dulls the
sense of taste and weakens the power of discrimination.
Very much of
"She is very much
of a lady." Say, "She is very ladylike." "He is very much
of a gentleman." Say, "He is very gentlemanly."
Quite
This adverb is often
incorrectly used in the sense of very or rather. It should be employed only in
the sense of wholly or entirely. These sentences are therefore incorrect:
"He was wounded
quite severely."
"James was quite
tired of doing nothing."
How
This word is sometimes
used when another would be more appropriate.
"He said how he
would quit farming." Use that.
"Ye see how that
not many wise men are called." We must read the Bible as we find it, but
in modern English the sentence would be corrected by omitting how.
"Be careful how
you offend him." If the manner of offending is the thought to be
expressed, the sentence is correct. But the true meaning is doubtless better
expressed by, "Be careful lest you offend him."
No, Not
"I cannot tell
whether he will come or no." "Whether he be a sinner or no I know
not." In such cases not should be used instead of no.
This much
"This much can be
said in his favor." Change this much to so much or thus much.
That far
The expressions this
far and that far, although they are very common, are, nevertheless, incorrect.
Thus far or so far should be used instead.
Over, More than
"There were not
over thirty persons present." Over is incorrect; above has some sanction;
but more than, is the best, and should be used.
Real good
This is one of those
good-natured expressions that insinuate themselves into the speech of even
cultured people. Very good is just as short, and much more correct. Really good
scarcely conveys the thought intended.
So nice
"This basket of
flowers is so nice." So nice does not tell how nice. So requires a
correlative to complete its meaning. Use very nice or very pretty.
Pell-mell
"He rushes
pell-mell down the street." One bird cannot flock by itself, nor can one
man rush pell-mell. It will require at least several men to produce the
intermixing and confusion which the word is intended to convey.
As a general rule,
sentences should not begin with conjunctions. And, or, and nor are often
needlessly employed to introduce a sentence. The disjunctive but may sometimes
be used to advantage in this position, and in animated and easy speech or
writing the coordinate conjunction and may be serviceable, but these and all
other conjunctions, when made to introduce sentences, should be used sparingly.
Reason, Because
"The reason I ask
you to tell the story is because you can do it better than I." Because
means "for the reason." This makes the sentence equivalent to
"The reason I ask you to tell the story is for the reason that you can do
it better than I." Use that instead of because.
"Because William
studied law is no reason why his brother should not do so." The following
is better: "That William studied law is no reason why his brother should
not do so."
Only, Except, But
"The house was as
convenient as his, only that it was a trifle smaller." Use except for
only.
"The field was as
large as his, only the soil was less fertile." Use but for only.
But, Except
"Being the eldest
of the brothers but Philip, who was an invalid, he assumed charge of his father’s
estate." Except is better than but.
But what, But that
"Think no man so
perfect but what he may err." Say, "but that he may err."
"I could not think
but what he was insane." Use but that.
But, If
"I should not wonder
but the assembly would adjourn to-day." Use if instead of but.
But, That
"I have no doubt
but he will serve you well." Say, "that he will serve you well."
That, That
"I wished to show,
by your own writings, that so far were you from being competent to teach others
English composition, that you had need yourself to study its first
principles."--Moon, Dean’s English.
The second that is
superfluous. This fault is very common with writers who use long sentences. The
intervention of details between the first that and the clause which it is
intended to introduce causes the writer to forget that he has used the
introductory word, and prompts him to repeat it unconsciously.
But
"There is no doubt
but that he is the greatest painter of the age." The word but is
superfluous. "He never doubted but that he was the best fisherman on the
coast." Omit but.
That
"He told me he
would write as soon as he reached London." Say, "He told me that he
would write," etc.
Than
"The Romans loved
war better than the Greeks." Such ambiguous forms should be avoided. As it
is not probable that the speaker intended to say that the Romans loved war
better than they loved the Greeks, he should have framed his sentence thus:
"The Romans loved war better than the Greeks did."
But that
"He suffered no
inconvenience but that arising from the dust." But that, or except that,
is correct. Some persons improperly use than that after no.
"I don’t know but
that I shall go to Europe." Omit that. "I don’t know but I shall
go," etc.
Other than
"We suffered no
other inconvenience but that arising from the dust." This is incorrect.
After other we should use than. Therefore, "We suffered no other
inconvenience than that arising from the dust."
After else, other,
rather, and all comparatives, the latter term of comparison should be
introduced by the conjunction than.
Either the
"Passengers are
requested not to converse with either conductor or driver." This is one of
those business notices that are often more concise than correct. It implies
that there are two conductors and two drivers. The sentence should read,
"Passengers are requested not to converse with either the conductor or the
driver."
Lest, That
"I feared lest I
should be left behind." Use the copulative that, and not the disjunctive
lest. "I feared that I should be left behind."
Otherwise than
"He cannot do
otherwise but follow your direction." Use than, not but, after otherwise.
Hence, "He cannot do otherwise than follow," etc.
After that
"After that I have
attended to the business I will call upon you." The word that is
superfluous.
But what
"His parents will
never believe but what he was enticed away by his uncle." Omit what. The
use of but that would be equally objectionable. But is sufficient.
A reconstruction of the
sentence would improve it. "His parents will always believe," or
"Will never cease to believe that," etc.
Doubt not but
"I doubt not but
your friend will return." Say, "I doubt not that your friend will
return."
Not impossible but
"It is not
impossible but he may call to-day." Use that instead of but.
Whether, Whether
"Ginevra has not
decided whether she will study history or whether she will study
philosophy." As there is nothing gained in clearness or in emphasis by the
repetition of "whether she will," this shorter sentence would be
better: "Ginevra has not decided whether she will study history or
philosophy."
As though
"He spoke as
though, he had a customer for his house." Say, "as if he had a
purchaser," etc.
Except
"I will not let
thee go except thou bless me." This use of the word except occurs
frequently in the Scriptures, but it is now regarded as obsolete. The word
unless should be used instead.
"Few speakers
except Burke could have held their attention." In this sentence, besides
should take the place of except.
Certain adverbs and
conjunctions, in comparison or antithesis, require the use of corresponding
adverbs and conjunctions. Such corresponding words are called correlatives. The
following are the principal ones in use:
as, as.not merely, but also.as, so.not merely, but even.both, and.so,
as.if, then.so, that.either, or.such, as.neither, nor.such, that.not only,
but.though, yet.not only, but also.when, then.not only, but even.where,
there.not merely, but.whether, or. The
improper grouping of these correlatives is the cause of many errors in speech
and writing.
As... as
"She is as wise as
she is good." "Mary is as clever as her brother." The
correlatives as... as are employed in expressing equality. Their use in any
other connection is considered inelegant. "As far as I am able to judge,
he would make a very worthy officer." This is a very common error. The
sentence should be, "So far as I am able," etc.
As is often followed by
so. "As thy days, so shall thy strength be."
So... as
In such negative
assertions as, "This is not as fine a tree as that," the first as
should be changed to so. Say, "She is not so handsome as she once
was." "This edition of Tennyson is not so fine as that."
Either, Neither
The correlatives
either, or, and neither, nor, are employed when two objects are mentioned; as,
"Either you or I must go to town to-day," "Neither James nor
Henry was proficient in history."
"He neither
bought, sold, or exchanged stocks and bonds." The sentence should be,
"He neither bought, sold, nor exchanged stocks and bonds."
"That is not true,
neither." As we already have one negative in the word not, the word
neither should be changed to either, to avoid the double negation.
A negative other than
neither may take either or or nor as its correlative, "She was not so
handsome as her mother, or so brilliant as her father." "He was never
happy nor contented afterward."
Position of
correlatives
The placing of
correlatives requires care. "He not only gave me advice, but also
money." This is a faulty construction because the first member of the
correlative, not only, being placed before the verb gave leads us to expect
that the action of giving is to be contrasted with some other action. The close
of the sentence reveals the fact that the words advice and money represent the
ideas intended for contrast. The first correlative should, therefore, have been
placed before advice, and the sentence should read, "He gave me not only
advice, but also money."
"I remember that I
am not here as a censor either of manners or morals." This sentence from
Richard Grant White will be improved by changing the position of the first
member of the correlative. "I remember that I am not here as a censor of
either manners or morals."
"I neither
estimated myself highly nor lowly." It should be, "I estimated myself
neither highly nor lowly."
"He neither
attempted to excite anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration." The sentence
should be, "He attempted to excite neither anger, nor ridicule, nor
admiration." But here we have the correlative neither, nor, used with more
than two objects, which is a violation of a principle previously stated. The
sentence is purposely introduced to call attention to the fact that many
respectable writers not only use neither, nor, with three or more objects, but
also defend it. This usage may be avoided by a reconstruction of the sentence;
as, "He did not attempt to excite anger, nor ridicule, nor
admiration."
Many errors arise from
not knowing how to use the infinitive mood. Perhaps the most common fault is to
interpose an adverb between the preposition to and the infinitive verb; as,
"It is not necessary to accurately relate all that he said."
"You must not expect to always find people agreeable." Whether we
shall place the adverb before the verb or after it must often be determined by
considerations of emphasis and smoothness as well as of clearness and
correctness. In the foregoing sentences it is better to place accurately after
the verb, and always before the preposition to.
Supply "to"
The preposition to as
the sign of the infinitive is often improperly omitted.
"Please write
clearly, so that we may understand," "Your efforts will tend to
hinder rather than hasten the work," "Strive so to criticise as not
to embarrass nor discourage your pupil." These sentences will be corrected
by inserting to before the italicized words.
In such expressions as
"Please excuse my son’s absence," "Please write me a
letter," "Please hand me the book," many authorities insist upon
the use of to before the verb. The sentences may, however, be regarded as
softened forms of the imperative; as, "Hand me the book, if you
please." Transposed, "If you please, hand me the book."
Contracted, "Please, hand me the book." From this, the comma may have
slipped out and left the sentence as first written.
Omit "to"
When a series of
infinitives relate to the same object, the word to should be used before the
first verb and omitted before the others; as, "He taught me to read,
write, and cipher." "The most accomplished way of using books at
present is to serve them as some do lords--learn their titles and then brag of
their acquaintance."
The active verbs bid,
dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the
infinitive after them, without the preposition to. Such expressions, as
"He bade me to depart," "I dare to say he is a villain,"
"I had difficulty in making him to see his error," are, therefore,
wrong, and are corrected by omitting to.
Incomplete Infinitive
Such incomplete
expressions as the following are very common: "He has not gone to Europe,
nor is he likely to." "She has not written her essay, nor does she
intend to." "Can a man arrive at excellence who has no desire
to?" The addition of the word go to the first sentence, and of write it,
to the second would make them complete. In the case of the third sentence it
would be awkward to say, "Can a man arrive at excellence who has no desire
to arrive at excellence." We therefore substitute the more convenient
expression "to do so."
Participles relate to
nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions. Those ending in ing
should not be made the subjects or objects of verbs while they retain the
government and adjuncts of participles. They may often be converted into nouns
or take the form of the infinitive.
"Not attending to
this rule is the cause of a very common error." Better, "Inattention
to this rule," etc. "He abhorred being in debt." Better,
"He abhorred debt," "Cavilling and objecting upon any subject is
much easier than clearing up difficulties." Say, "To cavil and object
upon any subject is much easier than to clear up difficulties."
Omit "of"
Active participles have
the same government as the verbs from which they are derived. The preposition
of, therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the verb would not
require it. Omit of in such expressions as these: "Keeping of one day in
seven," "By preaching of repentance," "They left beating of
Paul," "From calling of names they came to blows," "They
set about repairing of the walls."
If the article the
occurs before the participle, the preposition of must be retained; as,
"They strictly observed the keeping of one day in seven."
When a transitive
participle is converted into a noun, of must be inserted to govern the object
following. "He was very exact in forming his sentences," "He was
very exact in the formation of his sentences."
Omit the possessive
The possessive case
should not be prefixed to a participle that is not taken in all respects as a
noun. It should, therefore, be expunged in the following sentences: "By
our offending others, we expose ourselves." "She rewarded the boy for
his studying so diligently." "He errs in his giving the word a double
construction."
The possessives in such
cases as the following should be avoided: "I have some recollection of his
father’s being a judge." "To prevent its being a dry detail of
terms." These sentences may be improved by recasting them. "I have
some recollection that his father was a judge." "To prevent it from
being a dry detail of terms."
When the noun or
pronoun to which the participle relates is a passive subject, it should not
have the possessive form; as, "The daily instances of men’s dying around
us remind us of the brevity of human life." "We do not speak of a
monosyllable’s having a primary accent." Change men’s to men, and monosyllable’s
to monosyllable.
After verbs
Verbs do not govern
participles. "I intend doing it," "I remember meeting
Longfellow," and similar expressions should be changed by the substitution
of the infinitive for the participle; as, "I intend to do it,"
"I remember to have met Longfellow."
After verbs signifying
to persevere, to desist, the participle ending in ing is permitted; as,
"So when they continued asking him, he lifted up himself, and said unto
them."
Place
In the use of
participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in sense should always be
made the leading word, and not the adjunct, in the construction.
"They did not give
notice of the pupil leaving." Here, the leading idea is leaving. Pupil
should, therefore, be subordinate by changing its form to the possessive; as,
"They did not give notice of the pupil’s leaving." Better still,
"They did not give notice that the pupil had left."
Clearness
The word to which the
participle relates should stand out clearly. "By giving way to sin,
trouble is encountered." This implies that trouble gives way to sin. The
relation of the participle is made clear by saying, "By giving way to sin,
we encounter trouble."
"By yielding to
temptation, our peace is sacrificed." This should be, "By yielding to
temptation we sacrifice our peace."
"A poor child was
found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman, suffering from cold
and hunger." Say, "A poor child, suffering from cold and hunger, was
found," etc.
Awkward Construction
Such awkward sentences
as the following should be avoided. In most cases they will require to be
recast.
"But as soon as
the whole body is attempted to be carved, a disproportion between its various
parts results."
"The offence
attempted to be charged should be alleged under another section of the
statute." The following is a better arrangement:
"But as soon as an
attempt is made to carve the whole body," etc. "The offence which it
is attempted to charge," etc.
Is building
The active participle
in a passive sense is employed by many excellent writers and is condemned by
others.
"Corn is selling
for fifty cents a bushel."
"Corn is being
sold for fifty cents a bushel."
The commercial world
evidently prefers the former sentence. There is a breeziness and an energy in
it that is lacking in the latter. It must, however, be used with caution. In
the following examples the passive form is decidedly better than the active:
"The foundation was being laid," "They are being educated,"
"While the speech was being delivered," etc.
Clearness and elegance
of style are, in no small degree, dependent upon the choice and right use of
prepositions. Many rules have been formulated, some of which are deserving of
consideration, while others are nearly or quite useless. Among the latter may
be mentioned, by way of illustration, the oft-repeated rule that between or
betwixt must invariably be used when only two things are referred to, and that
among must be employed when more than two are named. While it is true that the
order could not be reversed, that among, when used, must be employed in
reference to three or more persons or things, and that between may always be
employed in speaking of two objects, yet the practice of many of the best
writers does not limit the use of between to two objects. In fact, there are
cases in which among will not take the place of between; as, "I set out
eighty trees with ample space between them." "The stones on his farm
were so plentiful that the grass could not grow up between them."
Between, Among
"The seven
children divided the apples between them." Two children may divide apples
between, them, but in this case it is better to say, "The seven children
divided the apples among them."
George Eliot, in
Middlemarch, says: "The fight lay entirely between Pinkerton, the old Tory
member; Bagster, the new Whig member; and Brook, the Independent member."
In this case, between or with is more satisfactory than among, although three
persons are referred to.
Choice
Many sentences betoken
ignorance and others indicate extreme carelessness on the part of the writers
by the inapt choice of their prepositions, which often express relations so
delicate in their distinctions that nothing short of an extended study of the best
writers will confer the desired skill. We present some examples.
By, In
"We do not accept
the proposition referred to by your letter." The writer should have
employed the preposition in.
Differ with, From
We differ with a person
in opinion or belief; we differ from him in appearance, in attainments, in
wealth, in rank, etc.
Different from, To,
Than
"Your story is
very plausible, but Henry’s is different to that." "My book is quite
different than his." The adjective different must not be followed by the
preposition to or than. The sentences will be correct when from is substituted.
At, To
Never use the vulgar
expression, "He is to home." Say at home.
Preferred before, To
"He was preferred
before me." Say preferred to me.
With, Of
"He died with
consumption." Of is the proper preposition to employ. But we say, He is
afflicted with rheumatism, or bronchitis, or other disease.
In respect of, To
"In respect of
this matter, he is at fault." Better, "to this matter."
Of, From
"He was acquitted
from the charge of larceny." Acquitted of the charge.
In, Into
Into implies direction
or motion. "They walked into the church," means that they entered it
from the outside. "They walked in the church," means that they walked
back and forth within the church.
"The vessel is in
port." "She came into port yesterday."
Of, In
"There was no use
of asking his permission, for he would not grant it." In asking.
In, On
"He is a person in
whom you can rely." "That is a man in whose statements you can
depend." Use on for in.
To, With
Two persons are
reconciled to each other; two doctrines or measures are reconciled with each
other when they are made to agree.
"This noun is in
apposition to that." Use with.
With, By
These two prepositions
are often confounded. They have a similarity of signification with a difference
of use. Both imply a connection between some instrument or means and the agent
by whom it is used. With signifies the closer relation and by the more remote
one.
It is said that an
ancient king of Scotland once asked his nobles by what tenure they held their
lands. The chiefs drew their swords, saying, "By these we acquired our
lands, and with these we will defend them."
By often relates to the
person; with to the instrument.
"He lay on the
ground half concealed with a clump of bushes." "That speech was
characterized with eloquence." Use by in the last two sentences.
With, To
We correspond with a
person when we exchange letters. In speaking of the adaptation of one object to
another, the preposition to should be used after the verb correspond; as,
"This picture corresponds to that." With is often incorrectly used in
such cases instead of to.
Position
The old grammarian gave
a very good rule when he said, "A preposition is a very bad word to end a
sentence with;" but it is sometimes easier to follow his example than his
precept. In general, the strength of a sentence is improved by not placing
small particles at the end.
"Which house do
you live in?" Better, "In which house do you live?"
"Avarice is a vice
which most men are guilty of." Say, "of which most men are
guilty."
"He is a man that
you should be acquainted with." Say, "with whom you should be
acquainted."
"Is this the man
that you spoke of?" Better, "of whom you spoke."
"These are
principles that our forefathers died for." Rather, "for which our
forefathers died."
Omission
Prepositions are often
omitted when their use is necessary to the correct grammatical construction of
the sentence.
"They now live on
this side the river." Say, "on this side of the river."
"Esther and Helen
sit opposite each other." It is more correct to say, "sit opposite to
each other."
"John is worthy
our help." Better, "of our help."
"What use is this
to us?" Of what use, etc.
"This law was
passed the same year that I was born." Say, "In the same year,"
etc.
"Washington was
inaugurated President April 30, 1789." Some critics insist upon the
insertion of on before a date, as "on April 30," but general usage justifies
its omission. With equal force they might urge the use of in before 1789. The
entire expression of day, month, and year is elliptical.
If the same preposition
be required by several nouns or pronouns, it must be repeated in every case if
it be repeated at all. "He is interested in philosophy, history, and in
science." This sentence may be corrected by placing in before history or
by omitting it before science. The several subjects are individualized more
strongly by the use of in before each noun. This is shown in the greater
obscurity given to history by the omission of the preposition in the foregoing
sentence.
"We may have a
feeling of innocence or of guilt, of merit or demerit." Insert of before
demerit.
Needless Prepositions
Prepositions, like
other parts of speech that contribute nothing to the meaning, should not be
suffered to cumber the sentence.
Where am I at? Where is
my book at? I went there at about noon. In what latitude is Chicago in? Where
are you going to? Take your hat off of the table. Where has James been to? They
offered to Caesar a crown. This is a subject of which I intended to speak about
(omit of or about, but not both). She has a sister of ten years old. Leap in
with me into this angry flood.
The older writers
employed the useless for in such expressions as, What went ye out for to see?
The apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter.
All of
A very common error is
the unnecessary use of the preposition of after all; as, "during all of
this period," "in all of these cases," "for all of the
conditions," etc.
Up above
In most cases one of
these prepositions will be found useless. "The ladder reached up above the
chimney."
From hence
The adverbs hence,
thence, whence, include the idea of from. The preposition should, therefore, be
omitted.
A, which is a shortened
form of an, signifies one, or any. An was formerly used before nouns beginning
with either a consonant or a vowel sound, but now an is used before a vowel
sound and a before a consonant sound; as, a book, a hat, an apple, an eagle.
It will be observed
that an heiress, an herb, an honest man, an honorable career, an hourly visit,
a euchre party, a euphemism, a eulogy, a union, etc., are not exceptions to the
foregoing rule, for the h being silent in heiress, herb, etc., the article an
precedes a vowel sound, and in euphemism, eulogy, union, the article a precedes
the consonant sound of y. Compare u-nit with you knit.
In like manner some
persons have felt disposed to say many an one instead of many a one because of
the presence of the vowel o. But the sound is the consonant sound of w as in
won, and the article should be a and not an.
There is a difference
of opinion among writers concerning the use of a and an, before words beginning
with h, when not silent, especially when the accent falls on the second
syllable; as, a harpoon, a hegira, a herbarium, a herculean effort, a hiatus, a
hidalgo, a hydraulic engine, a hyena, a historian. The absence of the accent
weakens the h sound, and makes it seem as if the article a was made to precede
a vowel. The use of an is certainly more euphonious and is supported by Webster’s
Dictionary and other high authority.
The Honorable, The
Reverend
Such titles as
Honorable and Reverend require the article the; as, "The Honorable William
R. Gladstone is often styled ’The Grand Old Man,’" "The Reverend
Henry Ward Beecher was an eloquent orator," not Honorable William, E.
Gladstone, or Reverend Henry Ward Beecher.
Article omitted
"A clergyman and
philosopher entered the hall together." "A clergyman and
philosopher" means one person who is both clergyman and philosopher. The
article should be repeated. "A clergyman and a philosopher entered the
hall together."
"A red and white
flag" means one flag of two colors. "A red and a white flag"
means two flags, a red flag and a white flag. "A great and a good man has
departed." The verb has implies that only one man has departed, hence the
sentence should be, "A great and good man has departed."
"They sang the
first and second verse," should be, "They sang the first and the
second verse." "The literal and figurative meaning of words"
should be, "The literal and the figurative meaning of words."
"In framing of his
sentences he was very exact," should be, "In the framing," etc.,
or, "In framing his sentences he was very exact." "The masculine
and feminine gender," should be, "The masculine and the feminine
gender."
"After singing a
hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address." If Miss Willard alone sang
the hymn the sentence is correct. If the congregation sang the hymn the
sentence should be, "After the singing of a hymn, Miss Willard made a
stirring address."
"He is but a poor
writer at best." Say, "at the best." "He received but a
thousand votes at most." Say, "at the most."
"John came day
before yesterday." Say, "the day before yesterday."
Article redundant
"Shakespeare was a
greater writer than an actor," should be, "Shakespeare was a greater
writer than actor."
"This is the kind
of a tree of which he was speaking," should be, "This is the kind of
tree," etc. "What kind of a bird is this?" should be, "What
kind of bird."
"The one styled
the Provost is the head of the University," should be, "The one
styled Provost."
"The nominative
and the objective cases," should be "The nominative and objective
cases."
"He made a mistake
in the giving out the text." Say "in giving out the text," or,
"in the giving out of the text." In the latter instance, the
participle becomes a noun and may take the article before it.
Articles interchanged
"An elephant is
the emblem of Siam," should be, "The elephant is the emblem,"
etc. "A digraph is the union of two letters to represent one sound."
Should be, "A digraph is a union," etc.
We are all creatures of
habit. Our sayings, as well as our doings, are largely a series of habits. In
some instances we are unconscious of our peculiarities and find it almost
impossible to shake them off.
The following are
verbatim expressions as they dropped from the lips of a young clergyman in the
pulpit. They show a deeply-seated habit of repetition of thought. As he was a
graduate of one of the first colleges in the land, we are the more surprised
that the habit was not checked before he passed through his college and
seminary courses. The expressions are here given as a caution to others to be
on their guard: "Supremest and highest," "separate and sever
us," "derision, sarcasm, and contempt," "disobedient and
disloyal and sinful," "hold aloof from iniquity, from sin,"
"necessity of being reclaimed and brought back," "their
beautiful and their elegant city," "so abandoned and given up to evil
and iniquity," "soaked and stained with human gore and blood," "beautiful
and resplendent," "hardened and solidified into stone and
adamant," "this arctic splendor and brilliancy," "were
being slaughtered and cut down," "in the rapidity and the swiftness
of the train," "with all the mightiness and the splendor of his genius,"
"the force and the pressure it brings to bear," "has and
possesses the power," "lights flashed and gleamed."
The above were all
taken from a single discourse. Another peculiarity of the same speaker was his
use of the preposition between. Instead of saying, "Between him and his
father there was a perfect understanding of the matter," he would say,
"Between him and between his father there was a perfect understanding of
the matter."
Young writers will find
it a valuable exercise to go through a letter, essay, or other composition
which they have written, with the view of ascertaining how many words they can
eliminate without diminishing the force of what has been written. An article or
two from the daily paper, and an occasional page from some recent work of
fiction will afford further opportunity for profitable practice in pruning.
Widow woman
"And Jeroboam the
son of Nebat, an Ephrathite of Zereda, Solomon’s servant, whose mother’s name
was Zeruah, a widow woman, even he lifted up his hand against the
king."--I Kings xi, 26.
The expression is now
regarded as an archaism, and not to be used in modern speech or writing. Omit
woman.
Why
Many persons have a
foolish habit of beginning their answer to a question with the word why. In
some cases it doubtless has its origin in the desire to gain time while the
mind is preparing the answer, but in most instances it is merely a habit.
Some persons prefix the
word why to the statement of a fact or to the asking of a question. This is
even worse than to employ it to introduce the answer. Restrict it to its
legitimate use.
Look at here
This is one of the
numerous expressions designed to call the attention of the person addressed to
the speaker. It is both ungrammatical and vulgar. The omission of at will
render it grammatical. "See here" is still better.
Look and see
"Look and see if
the teacher is coming." The words "look and" are superfluous.
"See whether the teacher is coming" is a better expression.
Recollect of
The word of is
superfluous in such expressions; as, "I recollect of crossing Lake
Champlain on the ice," "Do you recollect of his paying you a
compliment?"
Settle up, down
"He has settled up
his father’s affairs." "He has settled down upon the old farm."
Up and down may be omitted.
"He has settled
down to business" is a colloquial expression which may be improved by
recasting the sentence.
In so far
"He is not to
blame in so far as I understand the circumstances." "In so far as I
know he is a thoroughly honest man." "In so far as I have influence
it shall be exerted in your favor." Omit in.
Pocket-handkerchief
The word handkerchief
conveys the full meaning. Pocket is therefore superfluous and should be
omitted. If a cloth or tie for the neck is meant, call it a neck tie or a
neckerchief, but not a neck-handkerchief.
Have got
"I have got a fine
farm." "He has got four sons and three daughters." "James
has got a rare collection of butterflies." In such expressions got is
superfluous. But, if the idea of gaining or acquiring is to be conveyed, the word
got may be retained; as, "I have got my license," "I have got my
degree," "I have got my reward."
Off of
"Can I borrow a
pencil off of you?" "I bought a knife off of him yesterday."
Such faulty expressions are very common among school children, and should be
promptly checked by the teacher. The off is superfluous.
"He jumped off of
the boat." Say, "He jumped off the boat."
The young lady
appointed to sell articles at a church fair entreated her friends to "buy
something off of me." She should say, "Please buy something from
me," or "Make your purchases at my table."
For to see
"But what went ye
out for to see? A man clothed in soft raiment?" Matt. xi, 8. "I will
try for to do what you wish." This form of expression, once very common,
is now obsolete. Omit for.
Appreciate highly
To appreciate is to set
a full value upon a thing. We may value highly, or prize highly, or esteem
highly, but the word highly when used with appreciate is superfluous.
Ascend up
"With great difficulty
they ascended up the hill." As they could not ascend down the hill it is
evident that the word up is superfluous.
Been to
"Where has he been
to?" The sentence is not only more concise, but more elegant without the
terminal to.
Both
The sentence, "The
two children both resembled each other," will be greatly improved by
omitting the word both. So also in "These baskets are both alike,"
"William and I both went to Cuba."
But that
"I do not doubt
but that my uncle will come." The sentence is shorter and more clear
without the word but. "I have no idea but that the crew was drowned."
Here but is necessary. Without it the opposite meaning would be conveyed.
Equally as well
"James did it
well, but Henry did it equally as well." As well or equally well should be
used instead of equally as well. "This method will be equally as
efficacious." Omit as.
Everywheres
"I have looked
everywheres for the book, and I cannot find it." This is a vulgarism that
should be avoided. Say everywhere.
Feel like
"I feel like as if
I should be sick." The word like is unnecessary.
Few
"There are a few
persons who read well." This sentence will be improved by saying,
"Few persons read well."
Help but be
This is an awkward
expression which is improved by being reduced to the two words help being; as,
"I could not help being moved by his appeal."
Kind of a
"He jumped into a
kind of a chaise, and hurried off to the station." A kind of chaise would
be better.
New beginner
"Mary plays on the
piano very well for a new beginner." If she is a beginner she must of
necessity be new to it.
Opens up
"This story opens
up beautifully." The up is superfluous.
Seeming paradox
The word paradox alone
implies all that the word seeming is intended to convey, hence seeming is
superfluous. "This was once a paradox but time now gives it proof."
Different
"There were ten
different men ready to accept the offer." As no reference to the
appearance or characteristics of the men is intended, the word different is
unnecessary.
Rise up
"They rose up
early and started on their journey." Up is superfluous and should be
omitted.
Sink down
"The multitude
sank down upon the ground." As they could not sink up or in any other
direction than down, the latter word should be omitted.
Smell of
"Did you smell of
the roses?" "No; but I smelled them and found them very
fragrant." "The gardener smelt of them for he has been culling them
all morning and his clothing is perfumed with them." The of is superfluous
in such expressions as taste of, feel of, and usually in smell of.
Think for
"He is taller than
you think for." For is unnecessary. "He is taller than you
think" is the contracted form of "He is taller than you think he
is."
Differ among themselves
"The authorities
differed among themselves." The words among themselves may be omitted.
End up
"That ends up the
business." Say "that ends (or closes) the business."
Had have
"Had I have known that
he was a lawyer I should have consulted him." Omit have.
Had ought to
"I had ought to
have gone to school to-day; I hadn’t ought to have gone fishing."
Incorrect. Say, "I ought to have gone (or I should have gone) to school
to-day; I ought not to have gone fishing." If the second clause is not an
after-thought the sentence can be still further improved by condensing it; as,
"I should have gone to school to-day, and not to have gone fishing."
The use of two
negatives in a sentence is much more common than is generally supposed. To
assume that only those who are grossly ignorant of grammatical rules and
constructions employ them, is an error. Writers whose names are as bright stars
in the constellation of literature have slipped on this treacherous ground.
A negation, in English,
admits of only one negative word. The use of a single negative carries the
meaning halfway around the circle. The meaning is therefore diametrically
opposed to that which would be expressed without the negative. The use of a
second negative would carry the meaning the remaining distance around the
circle, thus bringing it to the starting point, and making it equivalent to the
affirmative. The second negative destroys the effect of the first. The two negatives
are equivalent to an affirmative.
Double Negatives
While two negatives in
the same sentence destroy each other, a double negative has the effect of a
more exact and guarded affirmative; as, "It is not improbable that
Congress will convene in special session before the end of the summer."
"It is not unimportant that, he attend to the matter at once."
"His story was not incredible." "The fund was not
inexhaustible."
Redundant Negatives
"No one else but
the workmen had any business at the meeting." Omit else.
"Let us see
whether or not there was not a mistake in the record." Omit either or not
or the second not.
"The boat will not
stop only when the signal flag is raised." Omit not or change only to
except.
"He will never
return, I don’t believe." Say, "He will never return," or, if
that statement is two emphatic, say, "I don’t believe he will ever
return."
Don’t want none
"I don’t want
none," "I ain’t got nothing," "He can’t do no more,"
are inelegant expressions that convey a meaning opposed to that intended.
"I don’t want
any," or, "I do not want any," or, "I want none," are
correct equivalents for the first sentence; "I haven’t anything," or,
"I have nothing," should take the place of the second; and, "He
can’t do any more," or, "He can do no more," or "He cannot
do more," will serve for the third.
Not--Hardly
"I cannot stop to
tell you hardly any of the adventures that befell Theseus." Change cannot
to can. "I have not had a moment’s time to read hardly since I left
school." Say, "I have hardly a moment’s time," etc.
No--no
"The faculties are
called into no exercise by doing a thing merely because others do it, no more
than by believing a thing only because others believe it," says George P.
Marsh. He should have used any instead of the second no.
Nothing--nor
"There was nothing
at the Columbian Exposition more beautiful, nor more suggestive of the progress
of American art, than Tiffany’s display." Change nor to or.
Can’t do nothing
"He says he can’t
do nothing for me." Use "He can do nothing," or "He can’t
do anything for me."
Cannot by no means
This double negative
should be avoided. "I cannot by no means permit you to go." Say,
"I cannot possibly," or "I cannot, under any consideration, permit
you to go."
Nor--no
"Give not me
counsel, nor let no comforter delight mine ear," says Shakespeare.
"There can be no
rules laid down, nor no manner recommended," says Sheridan.
"No skill could
obviate, nor no remedy dispel the terrible infection."
The foregoing sentences
may be corrected by changing nor to and.
Not--no
"I pray you bear
with me; I cannot go no further," says Shakespeare. "I can go no
further," or "I cannot go any further," will make the sentence
correct.
Nor--not
"I never did
repent for doing good, nor shall not now."
"We need not, nor
do not, confine the purposes of God."
"Which do not
continue, nor are not binding."
"For my part I
love him not, nor hate him not."
In these sentences,
change nor to and.
No rule of grammar is
more familiar to the schoolboy than that which relates to the agreement of the
verb with its subject, or nominative, and none that is more frequently
violated. It would be a mistake, however, to assume that the schoolboy is the
only transgressor. Ladies and gentlemen of culture and refinement, writers and
speakers of experience and renown, have alike been caught in the quicksands of
verb constructions.
"This painting is
one of the finest masterpieces that ever was given to the world." A
transposition of the sentence will show that the verb should be were, and not
was. "Of the finest masterpieces that ever were given to the world, this
painting is one."
"His essay on ’Capital
and Labor’ is one of the best that has ever been written on the subject."
The verb should be have.
"The steamer, with
all her passengers and crew, were lost." The subject is steamer, and the
verb should be was.
Interrogative sentences
"What signifies
his good resolutions, when he does not possess strength of purpose sufficient
to put them into practice?" Resolutions is the subject, and the verb
should be signify.
"Of what profit is
his prayers, while his practices are the abomination of the neighborhood?"
Prayers being plural, the verb should be are.
"What avails good
sentiments with a bad life?" Use avail.
Subject after the Verb
"In virtue and
piety consist the happiness of man." Happiness, the subject, being
singular, the verb should be consists, to agree with its nominative.
"To these
recommendations were appended a copy of the minority report." A
transposition of the sentence will show that the verb should be was, and not
were. "A copy of the minority report was appended to these
recommendations."
Whenever the sentence
is introduced by a phrase consisting in part of a noun in the plural, or
several nouns in the singular or plural, and, especially, where the subject
follows the verb; care must be taken to keep the nominative well in mind, so
that the verb may be in strict accord with it.
Compound Subjects
When a verb has two or
more nominatives it must be plural. These nominatives may or may not be
connected by and or other connecting particle. The nominatives may consist of
nouns or pronouns, either singular or plural, or they may be phrases.
"Washington and
Lincoln were chosen instruments of government."
"Judges and
senates have been bought for gold,
Esteem and love were
never to be sold."--Pope.
"Art, empire,
earth itself, to change are doomed."--Beattie.
"You and he
resemble each other."
"To read and to
sing are desirable accomplishments."
"To be wise in our
own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight
of our Creator, are three things so very different as rarely to
coincide."--Blair.
Singular in Meaning
Nominatives are
sometimes plural in form but singular in meaning. Such nominatives require a
verb in the singular.
"The philosopher
and poet was banished from his country." Was is correct, because philosopher
and poet are the same person.
"Ambition, and not
the safety of the state, was concerned." Was is correct, because ambition
is the subject. The words, "and not the safety of the state," simply
emphasize the subject, but do not give it a plural meaning.
"Truth, and truth
only, is worth seeking for its own sake." Another case of emphasis.
Each, Every, No, Not
When two or more
nominatives are qualified by one of the foregoing words the verb must be
singular.
"Every limb and
feature appears with its respective grace."--Steele.
"Not a bird, not a
beast, not a tree, not a shrub were to be seen." Use was instead of were.
Poetical Construction
When the verb separates
its nominatives, it agrees with that which precedes it.
"Forth in the
pleasing spring, Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love." --Thomson.
Or, Nor, As well as,
But, Save
When two or more
nominatives in the singular are separated by such words as the preceding, the
verb must be singular.
"Veracity, as well
as justice, is to be our rule of life."--Butler.
"Not a weed nor a
blade of grass were to be seen." Change were to was.
"Nothing but
wailings were heard." Transpose. "Nothing was heard but
wailings." The verb should be was.
"Either one or the
other of them are in the wrong." The verb should be is.
If, however, one or
more of the nominatives are plural, the verb must be plural.
"It is not his
wealth, or gifts, or culture that gives him this distinction." Gifts being
plural, the verb should be give.
Some authorities say
that the verb should agree in number with the subject which is placed next
before it, and be understood (or silent) to the rest; as, "Neither he nor
his brothers were there," "Neither his brothers nor he was there,"
"Neither you nor I am concerned."
Prof. Genung, author of
Outlines of Rhetoric, says: "When a clash of concord arises, either choose
subjects that have the same number, or choose a verb that has the same form for
both numbers." He gives this sentence to show the change of verb:
"Fame or the emoluments of valor were (was) never to be his."
"Fame or the emoluments of valor could never be his." And this
sentence to show the change of one of the subjects: "Neither the halter
nor bayonets are (is) sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our rights."
"Neither the halter nor the bayonet is sufficient to prevent us from
obtaining our rights."
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns, like
army, committee, class, peasantry, nobility, are, grammatically, singular, but they
are often so modified by their surroundings as to convey a plural idea, and
when so modified the verb must be plural. When the collective noun conveys the
idea of unity, the verb must be singular.
"The army was
disbanded."
"The council were
divided."
"A number of men
and women were present."
"The people
rejoice in their freedom."
"The peasantry go
barefoot, and the middle sort make use of wooden shoes."
"The world stands
in awe of your majesty."
"All the world are
spectators of your conduct."
Weights, Measures, and
Values
The names of weights,
measures, and values, when considered as wholes, require singular verbs, and
when considered as units require verbs in the plural.
"There is twenty
shillings in my purse," meaning one pound in value. "There are twenty
shillings in my purse," meaning twenty separate coins, each being a
shilling. "Sixty-three gallons equals a hogshead." "Ten tons of coal
are consumed daily."
Titles of Books
Whether the form be
singular or plural, the title is considered a unit, and requires a verb in the
singular; as, "’The Merry Wives of Windsor’ was written by
Shakespeare." "Dr. Holmes’s American Annals was published in
1805."
Whereabouts
"The whereabouts
of his cousins were not known to him." The plural form of this word is
misleading. The verb should be was.
Phenomena, Effluvia
"A strange
phenomena," "A disagreeable effluvia" are incorrect forms not
infrequently met with. Both words are plural, and require plural verbs and also
the omission of the article a.
You was
This very incorrect
form is often employed by those who know better, and who use it, seemingly, out
of courtesy to the uneducated people with whom they are brought in contact. If
it be a courtesy, it is one that is "more honored in the breach than in
the observance."
Those who use the
expression ignorantly are not likely to read this book, or any other of a
similar character, and need scarcely be told that was should be were.
A, An, 181.
Aberration of
intellect, 87.
A 1,83.
A hundred others’
woes--Pronouns, 126.
Ability, Capacity, 27.
About, Almost, 28.
About, Around, 95.
Above, More than,
Preceding, 111.
Above, Foregoing, 87.
Above up, 180.
Acceptance, Acceptation,
28.
Access, Accession, 28.
Accident, Injury, 28.
Accord, Give, 86.
Accordance of Verb with
Subject, 198.
Collective Nouns, 203.
Compound Subjects, 200.
Each, Every, No, Not,
201.
Interrogative
sentences, 199.
Or, Nor, As well as,
But, Save, 201.
Phenomena, Effluvia,
204.
Poetical Construction,
201.
Singular in Meaning,
200.
Subject after the Verb,
199.
Titles of Books, 204.
Weights, Measures, and
Values, 203.
Whereabouts, 204.
You was, 204.
Acoustics, Ethics,
Politics, 143.
Act, Action, 86.
Adherence, Adhesion,
36.
Adjective or Adverb,
150.
Adopt, Take, 37.
Adverbs, 150.
Adverbs for Relative
Pronouns, 140.
Advise, Persuade, 52.
Affect, Effect, 37.
After of--Possessive
case, 127.
After than and
as--Pronouns, 132.
After that, 159.
After the
Imperative--Pronouns, 132.
After
verbs--Participles, 171.
After the verb To
be--Pronouns, 131.
After verbs and
prepositions--Pronouns, 130.
Again, Against, 115.
Aggravate, Exasperate,
37.
Agreeably disappointed,
77.
Agreement with
Antecedent--Pronouns, 133.
Ain’t, 119.
Alex. Melville Bell,
24.
Alienate, Antagonize,
Oppose, 32.
Alighted, Lit, Lighted,
88.
All, Is that all? 108.
All of, 180.
All, Whole, 41, 51.
Alleviate, Relieve, 37.
Allow, Guess, Reckon,
Calculate, 56.
Allowed, Said, 87.
Allude to, Refer to,
77.
Almost, About, 28.
Almost, Most, Very, 30.
Alms, Odds, Riches,
145.
Alone, Only, 113.
Alternative, 87.
Alternation, 87.
Alumna, Formula, 144,
Alumnus, Terminus, Cactus,
143.
Ambiguity--Pronouns,
135.
Among the rest, 78.
Among, Between, 175.
Amount, Number, 32.
Analysis, Crises, 143.
And, To--Try and, 117.
Anglicized Words, 20.
Angry, Mad, 30.
Animalcules, not
Animalculae, 148.
Anniversary, 87.
Answer, Reply, 32.
Antagonize, Alienate,
Oppose, 32.
Anticipate, Expect, 32.
Any, At all, 32.
Anyhow, 81.
Anyways, Somewheres,
Thereabouts, 78.
Apart, Aside, 78.
Apparent, Evident, 33.
Appendix, Index, 148.
Appointed you and
I--after verbs and prepositions, 130.
Appreciate highly, 189.
Apprehend, Comprehend,
105.
Archimedes’ Screw, 125.
Argue, Augur, 98.
Around, About, 95.
Articles, 181.
A, An, 181.
Interchanged, 184.
Omitted, 182.
Redundant, 183.
Titles--The Reverend,
182.
As after Equally, 190.
As... as, 162.
As, Like, 88.
As... so, 163.
As soon as, Directly,
Immediately, 77.
As, That, 70.
As though, As if, 160.
As well as, Or, Nor,
But, Save, 201.
Ascend up, 189.
Aside, Apart, 78.
Asparagus,
Sparrowgrass, 34.
Assets, Alms, Scissors,
145.
Assure, Promise, 34.
At all, Any, 32.
At, To, 176.
At you, 114.
Attacked, Burst,
Drowned, 108.
Aware, Conscious, 39.
Away, Way, 41.
Awful, 81.
Awkward
construction--Participles, 172.
Back up, Support, 82.
Badly, Greatly, 114.
Bad toothache, 70.
Balance, Remainder, 60.
Bandits, Banditti, 148.
Barbaric, Barbarous,
98.
Barbarisms, 20.
Beaus, Tableaux,
Chateaux, 147.
Beautifully, Beautiful,
70.
Because, Reason, 156.
Been to, 190.
Beg, Beg leave, 71.
Beg pardon, Which? 26.
Begin, Commence, 38.
Behave, 60.
Bell, Alex. Melville,
24.
Besides, 49.
Beside, Besides, 108.
Better, Best, 61.
Between, Among, 175.
Between you and
I--After verbs and prepositions, 130.
Black Oxide of
Manganese, 36.
Bombastic Language, 18.
Both, 190.
Both, Both of, 72.
Both, Each, 72.
Bound, 61.
Bountiful, Plentiful,
108.
Brace, Pair, Couple,
147.
Bravery, Courage, 116.
Bring, Fetch, Carry,
44.
Brooks’s Arithmetics,
125.
Brothers, Brethren,
149.
Bryant’s list, 16.
Bulk, 82.
Burglarize, 82.
Burst, Attacked,
Drowned, 108.
But, Except, 157.
But, If, 157.
But, Only, Except, 157.
But, Or, Nor, Save--As
well as, 201.
But superfluous, 158.
But that, 158, 190.
But that, But what, 82,
157.
But that, 157.
But that, Than that,
158.
But what, 160.
But what, But that, 82,
157.
By, In, 175.
By, With, 177.
Calculate, 83.
Calculate, Guess,
Reckon, Allow, 56.
Calculated, Liable, 83.
Calligraphy, 68.
Came across, Met with,
109.
Campbell’s law, 20.
Can, Could, Will, 115.
Can but, Cannot but,
68.
Cannot by no means,
196.
Can’t and Couldn’t,
120.
Can’t do nothing, 196.
Cantos, Heroes, 145.
Capacity, Ability, 27.
Carry, Bring, Fetch,
44.
Case forms--Pronouns,
129.
Casualty, Casuality,
68.
Character, Reputation,
44.
Chauncey Depew and Eli
Perkins, 65.
Cheap, Low-priced, 30.
Cherubim, Seraphim,
142.
Choice of prepositions,
175.
Choice of
relatives--Pronouns, 138.
Choice of words, 15.
Chrysalis, Analysis,
143.
Chuck-full, 74.
Clearness--Participles,
172.
Clever, Smart, 85.
Climax, 112.
Climb down, 103.
Collective nouns, 203.
Collective
nouns--Pronouns, 135.
Commence, Begin, 38.
Commenced to write,
107.
Commercial slang, 23.
Commodious, Convenient,
26.
Common, Mutual, 28.
Common slang, 23.
Complected, 69.
Complete, Finished,
Through, 39, 99.
Compound subject, 200.
Comprehend, Apprehend,
105.
Conclusion, End, 39.
Conjunctions, 156.
Conscious, Aware, 39.
Contemplate, Propose,
75.
Contemptible,
Contemptuous, 52.
Continual, Continuous,
39.
Continually,
Perpetually, 52.
Contractions, 118.
Convenient, Commodious,
26.
Convict, Convince, 40.
Correlatives, 162.
Could, Can, Will, 115.
Couldn’t, Can’t, 120.
Couple, Pair, Brace,
147.
Couple, Several, 76.
Courage, Bravery, 116.
Criterion, Datum, 144.
Crowd, 74.
Cunning, 59.
Cupfuls--Plural
compounds, 147.
Curious, 59.
Custom, Habit, 40.
Customer, Patron, 93.
Cute, 59.
Cut in half, 98.
Daren’t, Dursen’t, 123.
Data, Strata, 144.
Datum, Phenomenon, 144,
204.
Deface, Disfigure, 43.
Defect, Fault, 45.
Degrade, Demean, 43.
Depot, Station, 43.
Description, Kind, 44.
Didn’t, Don’t, 120.
Dies, Dice, 149.
Differ among
themselves, 192.
Different, 191.
Differ with, From, 175.
Different from, to,
than, 75, 176.
Directly, Immediately,
As soon as, 77.
Disfigure, Deface, 43.
Disremember, 69.
Dispense, Dispense
with, 75.
Dock, Wharf, 52.
Don’t and Didn’t, 120.
Don’t want none, 195.
Double negatives, 194.
Double possessives,
126.
Doubt not but, 160.
Dreadful
solemn--Adjective or adverb? 152.
Drive, Ride, 76.
Drowned, Attacked,
Burst, 108.
Dry, Thirsty, 75.
Due, Owing, 71.
Dursent, Daren’t, 123.
Dutch, German, 75.
Each, Both, 72.
Each, Every, 71.
Each, Every, No, Not,
201.
Each other, One
another, 46.
Each other’s
eyes--Pronouns, 126.
Each...
their--Agreement with antecedent, 134.
Effect, Affect, 37.
Effluvia, Phenomena,
144, 204.
Either, Neither, 47,
163.
Either the... or the,
159.
Elder, Older, 91.
Eli Perkins and
Chauncey Depew, 65.
Ellipsis, Analysis,
143.
Else ...besides, 49.
Else than, Other than,
159.
Emigrants, Immigrants,
78.
Empty, 86.
End, Conclusion, 39.
Endorse, Indorse, 84.
End up, 192.
Enjoy, 86.
Enjoyed poor health,
36.
Equally as well, 190.
Evacuate, Vacate, 75.
Ever, Never, 72.
Every confidence, 67.
Every, Each, 71.
Every, Each, No, Not,
201.
Everybody else’s, 128.
Everybody...
they--Agreement with antecedent, 134.
Every once in awhile,
73.
Everywheres, 190.
Evident, Apparent, 33.
Exasperate, Aggravate,
37.
Except, But, 157.
Except, But, Only, 157.
Except, Unless,
Besides, 161.
Exceptionable,
Exceptional, 73.
Excuse me--Which? 26.
Expect, Anticipate, 32.
Expect, Suspect,
Suppose, 110.
Factor, 112.
Farther, Further, 45.
Fathers-in-law--Plural
compounds, 147.
Fault, Defect, 45.
Favor, Resemble, 59.
Feel like, 190.
Feels badly--Adjective
or adverb? 151.
Female, Woman, 73.
Fetch, Bring, Carry,
44.
Few, 191.
Few, Little, 46.
Fewer, Less, 73.
Fictitious writer, 62.
Fine writing, 8.
Finished, Complete,
Through, 39, 99.
Fire, Throw, 78.
First, Firstly, 62.
First, Former, 61.
First-rate, 62.
First two, 79.
Fish, Fly, 148.
Fix, In a, 53.
Fix, Mend, Repair, 62.
Fly, Flee, 53.
Flys, Fishes, 148.
Foregoing, Above, 87.
Foreign words, 9.
Former, First, 61.
Formulas, Larvas,
Stigmas, 144.
For to see, 189.
Frederick the Great’s
Kindness--Nouns in apposition, 127.
From hence, thence,
whence, 180.
From, Of, 104, 176.
Funny, 56.
Further, Farther, 45.
Future, Subsequent, 79.
Gent’s pants, 79.
German, Dutch, 75.
Get, Got, 54.
Give, Accord, 36.
Good deal, Great deal,
57.
Good piece, Long
distance, 110.
Good usage, 19.
Good, Well, 158.
Got to, Must, 115.
Governor, the old man,
97.
Great big, 98.
Great deal, Good deal,
57.
Greatly, Badly, 114.
Grouse, Quail, Snipe,
149.
Grow, Raise, Rear, 113.
Guess, Reckon,
Calculate, Allow, 56.
Gums, Overshoes, 56.
Habit, Custom, 40.
Had better, Would
better, 57.
Had have, 192.
Had ought to, 193.
Hadn’t, Haven’t, Hasn’t,
121.
Haint, Taint, 121.
Hangs on, Continues,
115.
Have got, 188.
Have saw, Has went,
114.
Haven’t, Hasn’t, Hadn’t,
121.
Haply, Happily, 114.
Happen, Transpire, 65.
Has went, Have saw,
114.
Hate, Dislike, 116.
Healthy, Wholesome, 52.
Healthy, Healthful,
112.
Hearty meal, 98.
He is no better than
me--After than and as, 133.
Help but be, 191.
Heroes, Cantos,
Stuccoes, 145.
Herrings, Trout, Pike,
149.
He’s, She’s, It’s, 123.
Hey? Which? 25.
Hire, Lease, Let, Rent,
88.
His, One’s, 50.
His or her--Needless
pronouns, 136.
Hope, Wish, 99.
House, Residence, 43.
How for by
which--Adverbs for relative pronouns, 140
How, That, 154.
Hung, Hanged, 112.
I am him-Case forms,
129.
Idea, Opinion, 113.
If, But, 157.
If, Whether, 58.
Ill, Sick, 107.
Illy, Ill, 58.
Immediately, Directly,
As soon as, 77.
Immigrants, Emigrants,
78.
Implicit, 58.
I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s,
It’s, We’re, They’re, 123.
In a fix, 53.
In, By, 175.
In, Into, 85, 176.
In, Of, 177.
In, On, 177.
In our midst, 84.
In respect of, To, 176.
In so far, 188.
Inaugurate, 109.
Incomplete Infinitive,
168.
Index, Appendix, 148.
Individual, 58.
Indorse, Endorse, 84.
Infinitive, 166.
Infinitive, Incomplete,
168.
Infinitive
needed--Supply To, 166.
Infinitive
unnecessary--Omit "To," 167.
Informed, Posted, 86.
Injury, Accident, 28.
Interchanged Articles,
184.
Interrogatives--Pronouns,
130.
Interrogative
sentences, 199.
Into, In, 85, 176.
Introduce, Present,
105.
"Is
building," 173.
Isn’t, 121.
It’s, He’s, She’s, 123.
It is me--Case forms,
129.
John and Mary’s
sled--Double possessives, 126.
Journal, 68.
Junius’s letters, 125.
Juntos, Heroes,
Virtuosos, 145.
Just going to, 85.
Kind, Description, 44.
Kind of, 85.
Kind of a, 191.
Knights Templars, 147.
Know as, Know that, 58.
Knowing, 85.
Last, Latest, 59.
Lay, Lie, 69.
Lead a dance, 117.
Learn, Teach, 88.
Lease, Let, Rent, Hire,
88.
Leave, Quit, 83.
Lend, Loan, 88.
Less, Fewer, 73.
Lest, That, 159.
Let it alone, Leave it
alone, 83.
Let, Lease, Rent, Hire,
88.
Let you and I try
it--After the Imperative, 132.
Let’s, 123.
Liable, Calculated, 83.
Lie, Lay, 69.
Lighted, Lit, Alighted,
88.
Like, As, 88.
Like, Love, 29.
List of Principal
Correlatives, 162.
Lit, Lighted, 88.
Little, Few, 46.
Little piece, Short
distance, 67.
Little bit, 74.
Loan, Lend, 88.
Look and see, 187.
Look at here, 187.
Lot, Number, 116. Love,
Like, 29.
Low-priced, Cheap, 30.
Luck, 84.
Mad, Angry, 30.
Make, Manufacture, 65.
Make way with, 84.
Mayn’t, Mustn’t, Mightn’t,
Oughtn’t, 122.
Mayst, Mightest, 123.
Means, Alms,
Headquarters, 146.
Measures, Weights,
Values, 203.
Memorandum, Datum, 144.
Mend, Fix, Repair, 62.
Mention, Allude to,
Refer to, 77.
Men’s and boys’ shoes,
124.
Men, women, and
children’s shoes--Double possessives, 126.
Met with, Came across,
109.
Mightn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t,
Oughtn’t, 122.
Mightst, Mayst, 123.
Mighty, Very, 104.
Misplaced
relatives--Pronouns, 141.
Mixed pronouns, 136.
More than, Above,
Preceding, 111.
More than, Over, 155.
More, Worse, 42.
Mosquitoes, Heroes,
Halos, 145.
Most, Almost, Very, 30.
Musselmans, Dragomans,
145.
Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t,
and Oughtn’t, 122.
Mutual, Common, 28.
Myself, 29.
Nasty, Nice, 89.
Near, Nearly, 89.
Need, Want, 40.
Needless Articles, 183.
Needless Prepositions,
180.
Needless Pronouns, 136.
Negatives, 194.
Negligence, Neglect,
29.
Neighborhood, Region,
42.
Neither, Either, 47,
163.
Neither... nor, Either,
163.
Never, Ever, 72.
Never... nor (or or),
Either, 163.
Never, Not, 29.
News, 142.
New beginner, 191.
New Words, 21.
Nice, Nasty, 89.
Nicely, 89.
No, Each, Every, Not,
201.
No... no, 154, 196.
No, Not, 154.
No good, No use, 89.
No more than I could
help, 111.
No use, No good, 89.
Nor... no, 197.
Nor, Or--Pronouns, 135.
Nor, Or, As well as,
But, Save, 201.
Nor... not, 197.
None, Singular or
plural, 51.
Not... hardly, 196.
Not impossible but,
160.
Not... neither, Either,
163.
Not, Never, 29.
Not... or (or nor),
Either, 163.
Not... no, 197.
Noted, Notorious, 94.
Nothing like, 94.
Nothing... nor, 196.
Notorious, Noted, 94.
Nouns in
Apposition--Possessive Case 126.
Nouns, Plural-Possessive
Case, 125.
Nouns,
Singular--Possessive Case, 125.
Nowhere near so, 94.
Nucleus, Terminus,
Fungus, 143.
Number, 142.
Number, Amount, 32.
Number, Lot, 116.
Number, Quantity, 38.
O, Oh, 90.
Observe, Say, 90.
Obsolete Words, 20.
Odds, Alms, Riches,
145.
Of any, Of all, 90.
Of, From, 104,176.
Of, In, 177.
"Of"
redundant, 169.
Of, With, 176.
Off of, 189.
Older, Elder, 91.
Omission of Article,
182.
Omit the Possessive,
170.
Omission of
Preposition, 179.
Omit "Of,"
169.
Omit "To,"
167.
Omitted
Relatives--Pronouns, 141.
On, Over, Upon, 104.
One another, Each
other, 46.
One... they--Agreement
with Antecedent, 134.
One’s, His, 50.
Only, 91.
Only, Alone, 113.
Only, Except, But, 157.
Onto, Upon, 92.
Opens up, 191.
Opinion, Idea, 113.
Oppose, antagonize,
Alienate, 32.
Or. Nor, As well as,
But, Save, 201.
Or, Nor--Pronouns, 135.
Other, 49.
Other... besides, 49.
Other than, 159.
Other than, Otherwise
than, 48.
Otherwise than,
Otherwise but, 159.
Ottomans, Mussulmans,
145.
Ought, Should, Would,
102.
Oughtn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t,
Mightn’t, 122.
Outstart, 92.
Over and Above, More
than, 92.
Over, More than, 155.
Over, On, Upon, 104.
Over with, 110.
Overflown, Overflowed,
110.
Overlook, Oversee, 95.
Overshoes, Gums, 56.
Overworked Expressions,
13.
Owing, Due, 71.
Oxide of Manganese,
Black, 36.
Pair, Couple, Brace,
147.
Pants, Gent’s, 79.
Pappy, the Old Man, 97.
Parenthetical
Expressions--Pronouns, 133.
Part, Portion, 30.
Partake, Ate, 105.
Participles, 169,
After Verbs, 171.
Awkward Construction,
172.
Clearness, 172.
"Is
building," 173.
"Of"
redundant, 169.
Omit the Possessive,
170.
Place of, 171.
Party, Person, 93.
Patron, Customer, 93.
Peas, Pease, 149.
Pell-mell, 155.
Pennies, Pence, 149.
Per, 93.
Peradventure,
Perchance, 93.
Performers, 93.
Period, Point, 94.
Perpetually,
Continually, 52.
Person, Party, 93.
Perspire, Sweat, 86.
Persuade, Advise, 52.
Peruse, 78.
Pet Words, 12.
Phenomena, Data,
Effluvia, 144, 204.
Place of Participles,
171.
Plead, Pleaded, 94.
Plenty, Plentiful, 95.
Plural Compounds, 147.
Plural Nouns, 125.
Pocket-handkerchief,
188.
Poet, Poetess, 73.
Poetic Terms, 9.
Poetical Construction,
201.
Point, Period, 94.
Politics, Acoustics,
Ethics, 143.
Portion, Part, 30.
Position of
Correlatives, 164.
Position of
Preposition, 178.
Possessive Case, 124.
After of, 127.
Double possessives,
126.
Nouns, Singular, 125.
" Plural, 125.
" in apposition,
126.
Pronouns, 126.
Somebody else’s, 127.
Postal, 31.
Posted, Informed, 86.
Powerful sight, 105.
Practical, Practicable,
31.
Preceding, Above, More
than, 111.
Predicate, 31.
Prefer than, 31.
Preferred before, to,
176.
Prejudice, 33.
Prepositions, 174.
All of, 180.
At, To, 176.
Between, Among, 175.
By, In, 175.
Choice, 175.
Differ with, from, 175.
Different from, to,
than, 176.
From hence, 180.
In, Into, 176.
In, On, 177.
In respect of, to, 176.
Needless prepositions,
180.
Of, In, 177.
Of, From, 176.
Omission of
prepositions, 179.
Position, 178.
Preferred before, to,
176.
To, With, 177.
Up above, 180.
With, By, 177.
With, Of, 176.
With, To, 178.
Present, Introduce,
105.
Presume, Think,
Believe, 33.
Pretend, Profess, 33.
Pretty, Very, 116.
Preventative,
Preventive, 33.
Previous, Previously,
33.
Profess, Pretend, 33.
Promise, Assure, 34.
Pronouns, 129.
Adverbs for Relative
Pronouns, 140.
After than and as, 132.
" the Imperative,
132.
" To be, 131.
" Verbs and
Prepositions, 130.
Agreement with
Antecedent, 133.
Ambiguity, 135.
Case Forms, 129.
Choice of Relatives,
138.
Collective Nouns, 135.
Interrogatives, 130.
Misplaced Relatives,
141.
Mixed, 136.
Needless, 136.
Omitted Relatives, 141.
Or, Nor, 135.
Parenthetical
expressions, 133.
Silent Predicate, 132.
The one, the other,
141.
Uniform Relatives, 137.
Which and who after
and, 140.
Pronouns--Possessive
Case, 126.
Pronouns--Personal and
Relative, 129.
Proper Names--Plurals,
146.
Propose, Purpose, 34.
Proposal, Proposition,
37.
Propose, Contemplate,
75.
Prospectus, Terminus,
Apparatus, 148.
Proved, Proven, 38.
Providing, Provided,
37.
Provincialisms, 24.
Pupil, Scholar, 107.
Purity of Diction, 19.
Purpose, Propose, 34.
Quail, Grouse,
Woodcock, 149.
Quantity, Number, 38.
Quite, Very, Rather,
153.
Quite a few, 38.
Quit, Leave, 83.
Raise, Grow, Rear, 113.
Rarely, Rare, 42.
Rather than, Other
than, 159.
Real, Really, 42.
Real good, 155.
Rear, Raise, Grow, 113.
Reason, Because, 156.
Receipt, Recipe, 42.
Reckon, Guess,
Calculate, Allow, 56.
Recollect of, 187.
Redundancy, 185.
Redundant Article, 183.
Redundant Negatives,
195.
Refer to, Allude to,
77.
Region, Neighborhood,
42.
Relieve, Alleviate, 37.
Remainder, Balance, 60.
Remit, Send, 43.
Rent, Lease, Let, Hire,
88.
Repair, Fix, Mend, 62.
Reply, Answer, 32.
Reputation, Character,
44.
Requisite, Requisition,
Requirement, 106.
Resemble, Favor, 59.
Residence, House, 43.
Restaurant French, 10.
Revolting, 96.
Reverend, 182.
Riches, Alms, Odds,
145.
Ride, Drive, 76.
Right, Right here, Just
here, 99.
Right smart, 73.
Rise up, 192.
Round, Square, 63.
Said, Allowed, 87.
Same as, Same that,
105.
Save, But, Or, Nor, As
well as, 201.
Say, Observe, 90.
Says, States, 63.
Scholar, Pupil, 107.
Section, Region, 106.
Seeming Paradox, 191.
Seldom or ever, 106.
Send, Remit, 43.
Seraphim, Cherubim,
142.
Set, Sit, 80.
Settle up, down, 188.
Several, Couple, 76.
Sewage, Sewerage, 106.
Shall, Will, Should,
Would, 100.
Shall you? Will you?
102.
She’s, He’s, It’s, 123.
Should, Would, Ought,
102.
Should, Would, Shall,
Will, 100.
Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t,
122.
Sick, Ill, 107.
Sight, Many, 74.
Silent
Predicate--Pronouns, 132.
Single, The first, 79.
Singular Nouns, 125.
Singular in Meaning,
201.
Sink down, 192.
Sit, Set, 80.
Slang, 22.
Slang, Commercial,
Common, and Society, 23.
Smart, Clever, 85.
Smell of, 192.
Smells
sweetly--Adjective or Adverb? 151.
Sociable, Social, 106.
Society Slang, 23.
So... as, 163.
So far, That far, 154.
So nice, 155.
So, Such, 152.
Solos, Heroes, Octavos,
145.
Some better, 98.
Some means or another,
48.
Somebody else’s, 127.
Somewheres, Anyways,
Thereabouts, 78.
Sparrowgrass,
Asparagus, 34.
Specialty, Speciality,
106.
Square, Round, 63.
Stand a chance, 110.
States, Says, 63.
Station, Depot, 43.
Stay, Stop, 63.
Stilts, 18.
Stop, Stay, 63.
Strata, Data, 144.
Subject after the verb,
199.
Subsequent, Future, 79.
Subtile, Subtle, 63.
Such as you and
me--After than and as, 133.
Such, So, 152.
Summerish, Winterish,
99.
Summons, 64.
Supply "To,"
166.
Support, Back up, 82.
Sweat, Perspire, 86.
Tableaux, Beaus,
Plateaus, 147.
Tactics, Acoustics,
143.
Taint, Haint, 121.
Take, Adopt, 37.
Talented, 103.
Taste, 7.
Tasty, Tasteful, 64.
Team, 64.
Teach, Learn, 88.
Terminus, Radius,
Focus, 143.
Than, 48.
Than ambiguous, 158.
Thanks, I thank you,
115.
That, As, 70.
That, But, 157.
That far, Thus far,
154.
That, Lest, 159.
That omitted, 158.
That, that, 157.
The father he
died--Needless pronouns, 136.
The first, Single, 79.
The Honorable, the
Reverend, 182.
The Infinitive, 166.
The Miss
Browns--Titles, 146.
The Old Man, 97.
The one, the
other--Pronouns, 141.
Them books, 137.
Thereabouts,
Somewheres, Any ways, 78.
These kind, Those kind,
47.
These sort, Those kind,
64.
These, Those, 62.
They’re, We’re, You’re,
123.
Think for, 192.
Thirsty, Dry, 75.
This much, 154.
This twenty years,
These kind, 47.
Those kind, These sort,
64.
Through, Finished,
Complete, 39, 99.
Throw, Fire, 78.
Titles of Books, 204.
Titles--The Reverend,
the Honorable, 182.
Titles with Proper
Names, 146.
To always find--The
Infinitive, 166.
To, With, 177, 178.
To, At, 176.
Transpire, Happen, 65.
Trite Expressions, 12.
Truth, Veracity, 67.
Try and, Try to, 117.
Try the experiment, 67.
Two foot, These kind,
48.
Two Negatives, 194.
Ugly, 67.
Unbeknown, 68.
Underhanded, 68.
Under the weather, Ill,
115.
Unexampled, 96.
Uniform
Relatives--Pronouns, 137.
Unless, Without, 41.
Up above, 180.
Upon, On, Over, 104.
Utter, Express, 96.
Vacate, Evacuate, 75.
Valuable, Valued, 97.
Values, Weights,
Measures, 203.
Veracity, Truth, 67.
Very, Most, Almost, 30.
Very much of, 153.
Very pleased, 97.
Very, Pretty, 116.
Very Vulgar Vulgarisms,
13.
Vicinity, Neighborhood,
97.
Vulgarisms, 13.
Want, Need, 40.
Wasn’t, 122.
Way, Away, 41.
Ways, way, 41.
Weights, Measures, and
Values, 203.
Well, Good, 153.
Weren’t, 122.
We’re, They’re, You’re,
123.
Wharf, Dock, 52.
Wharf, Wharves, 149.
What for that, 137.
What? Which? Hey? 25.
Whereabouts, 204.
Where for in
which--Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140.
Whether, If, 58.
Whether... Whether,
160.
Which? 25.
Which? Beg pardon, 25.
Which for who, 137.
Which? What? 25.
Which and who after
and--Pronouns, 140.
Who should I
see--Interrogatives, 131.
Whole, All, 41, 51.
Wholesome, Healthy, 52.
Whom do you think he
is--Interrogatives, 131.
Why, 187.
Widow woman, 186.
Will, Could, Can, 115.
Will, Shall, Should,
Would, 100.
Will you? Shall you?
102.
Winterish, Summerish,
99.
Wish, Hope, 99.
With, By, 177.
With, Of, 176.
With, To, 177, 178.
Without, Unless, 41.
Woman, Female, 73.
Words, Anglicized, 20.
Words Improperly Used,
26.
Words, New, 21.
Words, Obsolete. 20.
Words to be avoided,
18.
Worse, More, 42.
Would better, Had
better, 57.
Would Should, Ought,
102.
Would, Should, Shall,
Will, 100.
Wouldn’t, Shouldn’t,
122.
You are him--Case
Forms, 129.
You’re, We’re, They’re,
123.
You was, 204.
SOME books are designed
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ETIQUETTE By Agnes H.
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There is no passport to
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LETTER WRITING By Agnes
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Why do most persons
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QUOTATIONS By Agnes H.
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A clever compilation of
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arranged according to the sentiment. In addition to all the popular quotations
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THINGS WORTH KNOWING By
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HANDBOOK OF
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TOASTS By William
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Most men dread being
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